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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 









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GRAMMATIC GUIDE; 



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OR 



COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR. 















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BY 



D. CAVERNO ALLEN. 



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SYRACUSE : 
MYERS & WYNKOOP, 

NO. 2 SALINA-STREET. 



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Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1847, by 

LEAVITT, TROW & CO. 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court, for the Southern District of 

New-York. 



PREFACE 



In presenting this volume to the Public, the 
Author has no apologies to make. 

It is almost the offspring of necessity, having 
grown out of the course the Author has pursued 
in teaching English Grammar for some time. 

No work was found embracing his views of 
the subject ; but this alone would not have called 
forth this volume. It was the order in which our 
text books on English Grammar are arranged, that 
caused the great difficulty. 

But while preparing a work which should 
obviate this difficulty, the Author has had no hesi- 
tation in introducing the results of his own ex- 
perience, although they may, in some instances, 
be a departure from long established opinions. 

Every thing deemed unnecessary has been 
laid aside, and the sole object has been to prepare 



4 PREFACE. 

a work which should be an aid to the Teacher 
in his arduous and responsible labors, and an 
assistance to the Student in acquiring a thorough 
and practical knowledge of his mother tongue. 

If these ends shall be even partially accom- 
plished, the ardent wishes of the Author will be 
gratified, and the labor of preparing the work will 
receive its reward. 

Onojsdaga Institute, June %&th> 1847* 



INTRODUCTION. 

" The grammar of every language is merely a com- 
pilation of those general principles, or rules, agreeably 
to which that language is spoken. When I say, a 
compilation of rules, I would not be understood to 
mean, that the rules are first established, and the lan- 
guage afterwards modelled in conformity to these. Tl&e 
very reverse is the fact; language is antecedent to 
grammar. Words are framed and combined to ex- 
press sentiment, before the grammarian can enter on 
his province. His sole business is not to dictate forms of 
speech, or to prescribe law to our modes of expression ; 
but, by observing the modes previously established, by 
remarking their similarities and dissimilarity, his pro- 
vince is to deduce and explain the general principles, 
and the particular forms, agreeably to which the speak- 
ers of that language express themselves. The phi- 
losopher does not determine, by what laws the physical 
and moral world should be governed ; but, by the careful 
observation, and accurate comparison of the various 
phenomena presented to his view, he deduces and 
ascertains the general principles by which the system 
is regulated. The province of the grammarian seems 
precisely similar. He is a mere digester and compiler, 
explaining what are the modes of speech, not dictating 
what they should be. He can neither assign to any 



6 GRAMMATIC GUIDE. 

word a meaning different from that which custom has 
annexed to it ; nor can he alter a phraseology to which 
universal suffrage has given its sanction." 

His duty is to reduce the whole matter to a system, 
to notice the influence which one word has upon 
another with which it stands connected, and to classify 
the "sounds significant/' or words, according to the 
offices which they severally perform. 

The strange diversity of opinion in regard to the 
number of the parts of speech, is chiefly owing to a 
propensity to judge concerning the character of words 
more from their form, than from their proper significa- 
tion ; or perhaps it has partly arisen from judging a 
word by its emphasis, which, as well as form, is a most 
fallacious criterion. — We suppose the particular office 
performed by a word, to be the only true guide for its 
classification. — If certain words are found to be names, 
they should be called names ; if another class of words 
assert action, they should be called asserters ; if some 
words seem to modify other words, they should be 
called modifiers ; and also, if some words are used to 
connect others, they should be called connectives. All 
the words in the English language can be, and are, 
comprised in these four classes, — and by a reasonable 
subdivision we shall find only seven parts of speech ;— 
namely, Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, 
Prepositions, and Conjunctions. Some objection may 
be raised to this subdivision, and the question may be 
asked, " How happens a pronoun, which is a word used 
instead of a noun, to be found among nouns or names 
in the general division ?" The pronoun stands instead 
of a noun, performs the office of the noun for which it 
stands, and is, in fact, as far as its use is concerned in 



INTRODUCTION. 7 

the sentence, strictly a noun, but not a primary one. 
It is a secondary noun— -a sort of agent for the primary 
noun, to perform its office, in its absence. — Let us con- 
sider an example : — 

" Bunker's awful mount is the capacious urn of their 
ashes ; but the flaming bounds of the universe could not limit 
the flight of their minds. They fled to the union of kindred 
souls." 



Names. 


Asserters. 


Modifiers. 


Connectives, 


mount 


is 


Bunker's 


of 


urn 


could limit 


awful 


but 


ashes 


fled 


the 


of 


bounds 




capacious 


of 


universe 




their 


to 


flight 




the 


of 


minds 




flaming 




they 




the 




union 




not 




souls 




the 
their 
the 
kindred 





The first and second classes will not require any 
particular investigation, as they are the same as in our 
common grammars ; but the third class, modifiers, de- 
serves particular attention. 

It will be observed, in the first place, that the articles 
are classed there. What is understood by a modifier 
is, a word used to stamp or characterize another word, 
and the question to be decided is, whether the words 
a, an, and the, stamp, characterize, or designate other 
words. 

" Articles/' says Smith, " are words placed before 
nouns to limit their meaning." 

It is also an office of the adjective to limit the 
meaning of nouns ; in fact, nearly every adjective, 



8 GRAMMATIC GUIDE. 

and I might say all, are known and are so called be- 
cause they "restrain from a general signification," 
which is the definition of the word limit. Then we 
have two classes of words, the properties of which are 
the same, and of course one of them is needless, and 
they should all be called either Articles or Adjectives. 

" The Article may properly be regarded as an adjective 
word." — Bullions. 

" These words, a and an. are now termed Indefinite Articles ; 
it is clear, however, that they are truly numerals. By what- 
ever names these terms, a, an, may be designated, it seems 
evident that they were originally synonymous with the name 
of unity." — Crombie. 

" We have also another word, the, named the Definite Ar- 
ticle, because it is said to point out the individual object. This 
word, I doubt not, proceeded from the word this or that, much 
in the same manner as a and an from ae and aneP — Crombie. 

" The truth is, the Articles a and the are both definitives." 
— Harris. 

It is true that the common name of unity, one, is 
more emphatic than a, also that this or that is more 
emphatic than the, and this seems to be the only differ- 
ence ; but if classification were controlled by emphasis 
we should have almost as many parts of speech as 
there are words. — But it is not necessary to enlarge 
upon this point, as the Article is now classed with 
Adjectives by some of our authors of grammars. 

Again, the possessive cases of nouns and pronouns 
have been called Adjectives, or modifiers of names, from 
these facts. — In the example, " Bunker's awful mount/' 
does not the word Bunker s restrain the general signi- 
fication of the noun or name mount ? It designates 
what mount, that is, it limits the meaning of the noun 
which follows it, in the same manner that awful desig- 
nates the mount by giving its character. The latter 



INTRODUCTION. 9 

is an adjective, and why is not the former? But 
the question may be asked, " Does the word Bunker's 
tell what kind of a mount it was ?" Are all adjectives 
adjectives of quality ? Can we always ask that ques- 
tion in regard to any adjective ? Certainly not. Then 
this does not make an exception, and therefore, as it 
does not interfere with any universal or even general 
rule, there arises no propriety in thus classing it. — But 
supposing that it is not acknowledged as an adjective, 
where can we class it ? With nouns ? "A noun is 
the name of any person, place, or thing ;" and every 
noun is a name, but of what is Bunker's a name ? The 
fact is, there is no such name. It is true that the word 
implies the name, Bunker, but no person has ever 
defined a noun as a word which implies a name, — it is 
a name. We might, with as strict propriety, say, that 
golden was a noun because it implies the name gold ; 
but it is not a name, and has never been classed as such 
on that account. Then, as the possessive case is not 
the " name of any person, place, or thing," it cannot 
be classed with nouns, and it must necessarily come 
under the head of that class of words which dis- 
tinguish one noun from another, adjectives. 

In the sentence, we have the word their referring 
to the heroes of the Revolution ; " their minds," that is, 
the "heroes' minds." Now it has been said that Bunker's 
could not be a noun, and as heroes' belongs to the same 
class of words precisely, it cannot be considered a noun. 
Their stands instead of heroes', and as heroes' is not a 
noun, their is not a pronoun. " A pronoun is a word 
used instead of a noun." Then it is evident, that the 
" possessive pronouns " are nothing more than adjec- 
tives modifying the following noun. All modifiers are 



10 GRAMMATIC GUIDE. 

not modifiers of nouns. Some modify verbs, and may- 
be classed by themselves under the name of Adverbs. 
Adverbs are well understood, and it will be unneces- 
sary to enlarge upon their nature and properties in 
this place. 

Connectives, — Some of these require a certain case 
of the noun to follow them, or, in other words, they 
must be placed before a certain case ; these are called 
Prepositions. The other words of the class of connec- 
tives are called Conjunctions. 

But to return again to Nouns. Nouns have no first 
and second person, because they are always the sub- 
ject of discourse. In such examples as the following, 
"I Paul the Apostle," Paul is said to be in the first per- 
son, but if it was " Paul the Apostle" then we should 
be told that the name Paul was in the third person ; 
but what has changed the person ? The clauses are the 
same with this exception, that the pronoun / is omitted 
in the latter, and as this omission changes the person 
of the noun associated with it, it is evident that the 
noun depends entirely upon the personal pronoun for its 
person, of which it is itself destitute. Then if we con- 
sider it (the noun) to have the first and second persons, 
they are not a part of the noun really, but belong to 
the pronoun. There is quite a question concerning 
the propriety of giving the noun these persons under 
any circumstances. Take the example above, and sup- 
ply the ellipsis, and it will read, " I — my name is Paul, 
— I am the Apostle," in which clause no one would call 
it the first person, still I can see no difference between 
this sentence and the other in signification, or in any 
thing, beside the supplying of the ellipsis. From this 
consideration nouns have been given but one person, 



INTRODUCTION. H 

the third, therefore no remarks have been made in the 
Grammar on Person of Nouns. 

Pronouns.— The Distributive, Demonstrative, and 
Indefinite Adjective Pronouns, hardly seem to be pro- 
nouns, as they do not stand instead of a noun, and are 
placed before it to designate it. These classes of words 
will all be found among Adjectives. 

Adjectives, — The class of adjectives is very numer- 
ous, sufficiently extensive to express all the qualities, 
conditions, and circumstances in which nouns can be 
supposed to differ. 

There are adjectives of quality, form, condition, sit- 
uation, state of action, possession, number, &c. In fact, 
the subdivisions of adjectives are nearly infinite, but 
still all agree in this very important particular : — 
" They are all used to distinguish nouns from each 
other, or to restrict their meaning." 

Verb,— The division of verbs given is recognized 
by many grammarians at the present day. But a few 
changes have been made, and also some things have 
been omitted. The first is the omission of the Sub- 
junctive mode. The propriety of making it a separate 
mode has long been questioned, and the mode is now 
generally considered uncalled for, and entirely unneces- 
sary and useless. 

Indeed the only difference between the Indicative 
and Subjunctive modes, is confined to the present tense. 
" If I love" is said to be the present tense of the Sub- 
junctive mode, but it only differs from the future Indica- 
tive by being used without the signs of future time, 
shall, will " If I shall or will love" conveys the same 
idea, as is conveyed by the other. " If I must go," we 



18 GRAMMATIC GUIDE. 

find no auxiliary must in the Subjunctive mode, but 
still it is preceded by the sign if. 

Now the words if, though, unless, &c, are very 
often used before verbs in the Potential mode, but the 
Subjunctive does not have a single auxiliary similar to 
any one in the Potential. — But there is no necessity of 
enlarging upon this, for the purpose of proving what is 
so manifestly absurd, as the use of the Subjunctive 
mode. 

The Progressive Form. — " The Progressive form 
of the verb is inflected by prefixing the verb to be, 
through all its modes and tenses, to the present parti- 
ciple." " The Participle is part of the verb which con- 
tains no affirmation, but expresses being, doing, or suf- 
fering, as a general quality of an object, and has the 
same construction as the adjective/' " An adjective 
is a ^ord added to a noun to express its ciuality." 
Then, from these definitions we are to understand that 
a participle " expresses a quality of an object, and has 
the same construction as the adjective/' that is, it per- 
forms the office and has the properties of an adjective. 
In the sentence " James was good," how shall we dis- 
pose of good ? Of course all will say that it is an ad- 
jective, connected to the word which it modifies by the 
copula was. But let us change the sentence a little, 
and instead of the word good, place another which is 
defined as having the same construction : " James was 
reading. " If reading has the same construction as an 
adjective, and if good is an adjective modifying James, 
then we must conclude that reading modifies the same 
word. Still we are told that was reading is a verb of 
the progressive form, when, at the same time, the last 



INTRODUCTION. 13 

part of the so-called verb has been disposed of as an ad- 
jective, leaving the principal verb was to be parsed by 
itself. 

Dr. Lowth, in his Grammar, the basis of Mr. Mur- 
ray's, has given to verbs a passive voice, which only 
differs from the progressive form, in the use of the prior- 
present instead of the present participle, but at the same 
time he has given us a specimen of his method of dis- 
posing of it : "I am well pleased." He tells us that 
am is the indicative mode, present tense, of the verb to 
be, and pleased a participle. If they are considered 
separately, as distinct parts of speech, what is the ne- 
cessity, or even propriety of uniting them in the inflec- 
tion ? 

But lest the reader may think the work nearly all 
introduction, the author refers him, for further informa- 
tion to the body of the Grammar. It is not necessary 
to enlarge in this place upon the characteristics of the 
work, because it will be a bare repetition of what is 
found, or rather a synopsis of what is in the work. 



TO TEACHERS. 

The absence of questions, remarks, exercises, examples 
for parsing, &c, might, at first view, be considered a great 
objection to any text-book, but a candid investigation of the 
matter will convince all, that, instead of its being an objec- 
tion, it is one of the best characteristics. It has long been 
thought, that authors, by proposing questions for the use of 
teacher and pupil, have somewhat underrated the human 
mind ; that they supposed it required a certain channel in 
which to run, certain bounds within which to act. — The 
mind seems to be dragged along from question to answer, 
without that deep and steady thought which insures success. 
It is important that we, as teachers, impress upon the minds 
of those committed to our charge, the great importance of 
studying subjects rather than books, and experience will 
prove that a regular series of questions, in a text-book, has 
a tendency to render the study merely book-study. The 
author was unwilling to enlarge the volume for the sake of 
making remarks upon unimportant matters, or discussing 
points upon which there happens to be a difference of opinion. 
It has been thought best to leave these matters entirely to 
teachers, to do as they may deem proper. 

Examples are not given in abundance, because it will be 
found far better for the pupil to find his own, or, if he can- 
not find them, form as many as he may wish, than to have 
them given in the book. Daily composition is almost indis- 
pensable to progress in grammar ; every principle must be 



TO TEACHERS. 15 

applied, for the principle will avail but little unless its ap- 
plication is made. The pupil, after he has been made ac- 
quainted with a noun, and the kind of noun, will be prepared 
to form his first sentences, containing nouns, common and 
proper. He soon becomes acquainted with the distinction of 
sex ; then he can combine gender with his common or proper 
nouns, then case and number. The pupil cannot fail to 
understand the science of grammar if he is required to 
prepare for the recitation sentences which shall illustrate 
that part of the subject under investigation. 

This work has been prepared with a very few examples 
for the very object that pupils might prepare them for them- 
selves, and thereby become more interested in the study than 
they could in any other way. 

That this little volume may be an instrument, in the 
hands of the zealous and faithful teachers in our Common 
Schools, of increasing the interest felt in the study of that 
deeply intellectual, very important, and interesting science 
of which it treats, is the sincere wish and earnest desire of 

THE AUTHOR. 



GMMMATIC GUIDE. 



1. Grammar is the science of Language. 

2. English Grammar teaches how to speak and 
write the English Language correctly. 

3. English Grammar is divided into four parts ;- — 
namely, Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Pro- 
sody. 

4. Orthography treats of the sounds of letters, and 
the correct method of spelling words. 

5. Etymology treats of the classification, modifi- 
cation, and derivation of words. 

6. Syntax treats of the proper construction of 
sentences. 

7. Prosody treats of the proper pronunciation of 
words, the poetical construction of sentences, and 
punctuation. 



PART I. 

1. It is deemed unnecessary to enlarge upon the 
subject of Orthography, as it is now taught as a sepa- 
rate branch in our Common Schools. 



18 GRAMMATIC GUIDE 



PAET II. 

CHAPTER I. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

1. Etymology treats of the classification, deriva- 
tion, and modification of words. 

2. Words are divided into four classes, according 
to the offices which they severally perform ; — namely, 
Names, Asserters, Modifiers, and Connectives. 

3. Names are divided into two classes ; — namely, 
Primary Names or Nouns, and Secondary Names or 
Nouns, the last of which classes comprises those words 
which are used instead of Primary Nouns, commonly 
called Pronouns. 

4. Asserters are called Verbs on account of their 
importance, and form but one class. 

5. Modifiers are divided into two classes ; — namely, 
Modifiers of Names, and Modifiers of Asserters. 

6. Modifiers of Names are known by the name of 
Adjectives. 

7. Modifiers of Asserters or Verbs are known by 
the name of Adverbs. 

8. Connectives are also divided into two classes ; — 
namely, Prepositive Connectives and Postpositive Con- 
nectives. 

9. Prepositive Connectives are called Prepositions. 



ETYMOLOGY. 19 

10. Postpositive Connectives are called Conjunc- 
tions, 

11. A Noun is the name of any person, place, ob- 
ject, or thing, that exists, or which we may conceive to 
exist ; — as, man, Boston, goodness. 

12. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; 
— as, " He learned his lesson." 

13. An Adjective is a word used to modify a noun ; 
— as, " A good boy." 

14. A Verb is a word w T hich expresses action, ex- 
istence, or state ; — as, I run, I am. 

15. An Adverb is a word used to modify a Verb ; — 
as, " He walks lightly/' 

16. A Preposition connects words, and shows the 
relation between them; — as, " He departed/rom home." 

17. A Conjunction connects words or sentences ; 
— as, " Two and two are four." " He went to Boston, 
and then returned." 

18. An Interjection, so called, is a voice of Nature 
rather than of Art, and is not worthy of being con- 
sidered a part of speech. 



CHAPTER II. 

NOUNS. 

19. A Noun is the name of any person, place, ob- 
ject, or thing, that exists, or which we may conceive 
to exist. 



20 GRAMMATIC GUIDE. 

20. Nouns are of two kinds, Proper and Common, 

21. Proper Nouns are names given to individuals ; 
— as, Washington, Syracuse, 

22. Common Nouns are names given to classes ; — 
as, animal, tree, &c. 

23. Common Nouns include the following classes ; 
— namely, Collective, Abstract, and Verbal nouns. 

24. A Collective Noun, or Noun of Multitude, is 
the name of many individuals together ; — as, council, 
assembly. 

25. An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality ; — 
as, hardness, knowledge. 

26. A Verbal Noun is a aame formed from a Verb; 
— as, writing, beginning. 

27. Proper Nouns become common when used in 
the plural, or when preceded by a definitive ; — as, " The 
lives of the Twelve Ccesars." " The Cicero of his age." 

28. Common nouns become proper when personi- 
fied, and also when used as proper names ; — as, Hail ! 
Liberty. The Grove. 

Modifications of Nouns. 

29. The modification of nouns are Gender, Number, 
and Case. 

30. Gender is the distinction of nouns with regard 
to sex. There are two genders, the Masculine, and 
Feminine. 

31. The Masculine Gender denotes animals of the 
male kind ; — as, boy, man. 

32. The Feminine Gender denotes animals of the 
female kind ; — as, woman, girl. 

33. There are three ways of distinguishing sex : 



Masc. 


Fern, 


Boy 


girl 


Buck 


doe 


Bull 


cow 


Bullock 


heifer 


Boar 


sow 


Bachelor 


maid 


Brother 


sister 


Cock 


hen 


Dog 


bitch 


Drake 


duck 



NOUNS', 




words ; — as, 




Masc. 


Fern. 


Earl 


countess 


Father 


mother 


Friar 


nun 


Gander 


goose 


Horse 


mare 


Husband 


wife 


King 


queen 


Lord 


lady 


Son 


daughter 


Uncle 


aunt 



21 



34. 2. By different terminations ; — as, 



Masc. 

Author 

Actor 

Ambassador 

Arbiter 

Baron 

Bridegroom 

Benefactor 

Count 

Duke 

Emperor 

Enchanter 

Governor 

Heir 

Hero 



Fern. 


Masc. 


Fern. 


authoress 


Host 


hostess 


actress 


Lion 


lioness 


ambassadress 


Marquis 


marchioness 


arbitress 


Patron 


patroness 


baroness 


Poet 


poetess 


bride 


Prince 


princess 


benefactress 


Prophet 


prophetess 


countess] 


Protector 


protectress 


dutchess 


Shepherd 


shepherdess 


empress 


Tiger 


tigress 


enchantress 


Administrator 


administratrix 


governess 


Executor 


executrix 


heiress 


Testator 


testatrix 


heroine 


Director 


directrix 



35. 3. By different prefixes ; — as, 



Masc. 

A cock-sparrow 
A man-servant 
A he-goat 
A he-bear 
A male child 
Male descendants 



Fern. 

a hen-sparrow 
a maid-servant 
a she-goat 
a she-bear 
a female child 
female descendants 



36. Some nouns are either masculine or feminine ; 
•as, parent, child, cousin, 



22 GRAMMATIC X2UIDE. 

As far as the gramatical construction of sentences 
is concerned, the gender of nouns is of no importance. 

NUMBER. 

37. Number distinguishes how many are meant 
whether one or more. 

38. Nouns have two numbers, the Singular and 
Plural. 

39. The Singular number expresses but one object ; 
— as, book, boy. 

40. The Plural number signifies more objects than 
one ; — as, books, boys. 

41. The plural number is generally formed by add- 
ing s or es to the singular. When the noun singular ends 
in x, ch soft, sh, ss, or s, es is added in the plural. 

42. When the noun singular ends in y, with no 
other vowel in the same syllable, the termination is 
changed into ies in the plural ; — as, lady, ladies. 

43. When the noun singular ends in f or fe, the 
plural changes the termination into ves ; — as, life, lives. 
There are a few exceptions, however ; — as, dwarf 
dwarfs, &c. 

44. Some nouns have no regular rule for the forma- 
tion of their plurals — 



Sing. 


Plural. 


Sing. 


Plural. 


Man 


men 


Foot 


feet 


Woman 


women 


Mouse 


mice 


Child 


children 


Penny 


pence 



CASE. 

45. Case denotes the relation of nouns to other 
words in the same sentence. 



PRONOUNS. 23 

46. Nouns have two cases, the Nominative, and 
Objective. 

47. The Nominative case simply expresses the 
name of a thing, or the subject of a verb ; — as, " The 
sun shines. v 

48. The Objective case denotes the object of a 
transitive verb, or a preposition : — as, " We love 
study ;" " He went to Albany." 



CHAPTER III. 

PRONOUNS. 

49. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. 

50. Pronouns are divided into two classes, Personal 
and Relative. 

51. There are five Personal Pronouns, so called, be- 
cause they denote their person by their form — 

1, which denotes the speaker ; 

You, which denotes the addressed ; 

He, she, it, which denote the subject of the address. 

52. They have all the modifications of nouns in 
addition to person ; — namely, Gender, Number, Case. 

53. He refers to names of the male kind ; she, to 
names of the female kind ; and it, to things without 
gender. 

34. Personal Pronouns are declined as follows : — 

Person. Case. 

1st Person J g^- 



Sing. 


Plural, 


I 


We 


Me 


Us 



24 



GRAiMMATIC GUIDE. 



2d Person { *™ 



3d Person 



rNom. 
Obj. 

Nom. 
) Obj. 

Nom. 
I Obj. 



You 
You 

He 

Him 

She 
Her 

It 
It 



You 
You 

They 
Them 

They 
Them 

They 
Them 



55. Thou, thee, and ye, are now seldom used, you 
being placed in their stead. What are usually called 
the possessive cases of the personal pronouns, have been 
classed among adjectives, as they are found to charac- 
terize or modify the nouns before which they are placed. 

56. Compound Personal Pronouns are formed by 
adding self to the singular, and selves to the plural of 
the personal pronoun ; — as, myself, ourselves, &c. 

57. A Relative Pronoun is one which relates to 
some name preceding it, which is called its antecedent. 

58. There are three Relative Pronouns — namely, 
who, which, and that. 

59. Who is applied to persons ; — as, " That man is 
happy, who lives virtuously." 

60. Which is applied to animals or things; — as, 
" The bird which sung." 

6 1 . That is used instead of who or which ; — as, " He, 
that acts wisely, deserves praise." 

62. What is a Compound Relative, equivalent to 
that which ; — as, " He gave me what I wanted." 

63* None of the Relatives are declined except who : 
Nom. who, Obj. whom. 

64. Who, which, and what, are often compounded 
with ever and soever ; — -as, whoever, whatsoever. 

65. Who, which, and what, when used in asking 
questions, have their antecedent in the answer. 



ADJECTIVES. 25 

66. As, after many, such, and same. is used as a 
Relative. 

67. The Possessive Cases of Personal Pronouns are 
classed among Adjectives. 

68. The Pronouns, mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, 
theirs, should always be considered as substitutes, in 
the same case as the nouns would be which they re- 
present. They are constantly used as the subjects of 
verbs, and the objects of verbs and prepositions ;— as, 
" You may imagine what kind of faith theirs was." 
M Yours of the 15tfa> May I have received," 



CHAPTER IV. 

ADJECTIVES. 

69. An Adjective is a word joined to a noun to 
modify it. 

70. Adjectives may be divided into three general 
classes ; namely, Descriptive, Definitive, and Possessive. 

71. A Descriptive adjective expresses some quality 
or property of the noun to which it is joined ; — as, " A 
good girl." 

72. A Definitive adjective defines or limits the 
meaning of the noun with which it is joined ; — as, " I 
saw twenty men," 

73. A Possessive adjective is one which denotes 
possession ; — as, George s book ; his top. 

74. Definitive adjectives may be subdivided into 
two classes, the Numeral and Prondminal. 

75. A Numeral adjective is used to express num- 
ber. 

2 



26 GRAMMATIC GUIDE. 

76. A Pronominal adjective partakes of the nature 
of a pronoun and adjective. 

77. Pronominal adjectives are again subdivided 
into Demonstrative and Distributive. 

78. Demonstrative Adjectives precisely point out 
the objects to which they refer ; — as, " Let us investigate 
this subject." 

79. Demonstrative adjectives are classed among, 
pronouns generally, and have thus been called Demon- 
strative Adjective Pronouns. 

80. Distributive Adjectives represent the persons 
or things which make up a number as taken separate- 
ly : they are, each, every, either, and neither ; — as, 
" Each person took a different course." " Every man 
must account for himself." 

81. Possessive adjectives are also divided into two 
classes, the Substantive and Pronominal. 

82. A Substantive Possessive Adjective is one de- 
rived from a noun ; — as, The lady's fan : men's shoes, 

83. A Pronominal Possessive Adjective is one that 
partakes of the nature of a pronoun denoting posses- 
sion ; — as, " Is this your book ?" 

84. This class of adjectives is composed of the pos- 
sessive case of nouns and pronouns, as found in nearly 
all grammars. 

Comparison of Adjectives. 

85. The Comparison of Adjectives is the variation 
by which they express different degrees of quality. 

86. There are three degrees of comparison, the 
Positive, the CoTrtparative, and the Superlative. 

87. The Positive degree expresses the simple state 
of the quality ; — as, good, great, wise. 



ADJECTIVES. 27 

88. The Comparative degree increases or lessens 
the positive ; — as, better, greater, less wise. 

89. The Superlative degree increases or lessens the 
positive to the highest or lowest degree ; — as, best, great- 
est, least wise. 

90. The Comparative degree of adjectives is form- 
ed regularly by the addition of r or er to the positive ; 
— as, old, older. 

91. The Superlative is formed regularly by the ad- 
dition of st or est to the positive ; — as old, oldest. 

92. Adjectives are also compared by placing the 
adverbs more and most before the positive ; — as, beauti- 
ful, more beautiful, most beautiful. Adjectives are 

compared negatively by the adverbs less and least ; — 
as, beautiful, less beautiful, least beautiful. 

93. A few adjectives are irregularly compared. 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Good 


better 


best 


Bad 


worse 


worst 


Fore 


formdr 


foremost or first 


Little 


less 


least 


Much 


more 


most 


Near 


nearer 


nearest or next 


Far 


farther 


farthest 


Old 


older or elder 


oldest or eldest 


Late 


later 


latest or last. 



94. The termination ish may be considered in some 
sort a degree of comparison, by which the signification 
is diminished below the positive ;— as, black, blackish, 
or tending to blackness. 

95. The words too, very, exceedingly, rather, are 
used to denote degrees of comparison. 

96. In some words the Superlative is formed by 
adding the adverb most to the end of them ; — as, under- 
most, uppermost. 



28 GRAMMATIC GUIDE. 

97. All adjectives do not admit of degrees of com- 
parison ; — as, perfect, universal, eternal, endless, right, 
&c. Possessive and Definitive Adjectives are not 
compared ; — as, This book, Henry's cap. 



CHAPTER V 



VERBS, 



98. A Verb is a word which expresses action, ex- 
istence, or state ; — as, I run, I am, you sit. 

99. Verbs are of two kinds, Transitive and Intran- 
sitive. 

100. A Transitive verb requires an object to com- 
plete the sense ; — as, James loves study. 

101. An Intransitive verb does not require an ob- 
ject to complete the sense ; — as, He sits. 

102. In the use of the Transitive verb, three things 
are always considered ; the subject, the act, and the 
object ; — as, in the sentence, " James loves study;" James 
is the subject, loves the act, and study the object. 

103. In the use of the Intransitive verb only two 
things are considered, the subject, and the act ; — as, in 
the sentence, " He rides ;-" He is the subject, and rides 
the act. 

104. In regard to form, verbs are divided into Regu- 
lar, Irregular, and Defective. 

105. A Regular verb is one that forms its Past 
Tense and Prior-present participle by the addition of d 
or ed to the Present ; — as, Present, love ; Past, loved ; 
Prior-present participle, loved. 

106. An Irregular verb is one that does not form its 



VERBS. 29 

Past Tense and Prior-present participle by the addition 
of d or ed to the Present ; — as, Present, write ; Past, 
wrote ; Perfect participle, written. 

107. A Defective verb is one that wants some of its 
parts. To this class belong chiefly Auxiliary and Im- 
personal verbs. 

Auxiliary Verbs. 

108. An Auxiliary Verb is one by the help of 
which the principal verbs are inflected. 

109. Auxiliary Verbs, when used alone, become 
principal verbs. When the term Verb occurs alone, the 
Principal verb is intended by it. 

110. The following are auxiliary verbs : Do, have, 
shall, will, may, can, must, did, had, should, would, 
might, could. Do is used to give emphasis to an asser- 
tion. Have is much used as an auxiliary, although a 
principal verb. Shall implies duty or obligation ; will, 
purpose or resolution ; may, liberty ; can, ability ; must, 
necessity. 

Inflection of Verbs. 

111. To the Inflection of verbs, belong Modes, 
Tenses, Numbers, and Persons. 

112. Mode denotes the manner in which the Verb 
is employed. 

113. There are four Modes, the Indicative, the Po- 
tential, the Imperative, and Infinitive. 

114. The Indicative mode simply indicates or de- 
clares a thing, or asks a question ; — as, He loves. Does 
he love ? 

115. The Potential mode implies possibility, lib- 



30 GRAMMAT1C GUIDE. 

erty, power, will, or obligation to act ; — as, / may go. 
I can read. 

116. The Imperative mode commands, exhorts, en- 
treats, or permits ; — as, Depart thou. Mind ye. 

117. The Infinitive mode is the first form of the 
verb, and is used in an indefinite manner ; — as, to love, 
to read. 

Participles. 

118. Participles are certain modes of expressing 
action or being, having the same construction as Ad- 
jectives. 

119. Participles are of three kinds, Present, Prior- 
present, and Compound. 

120. The Present participle denotes continuation 
or progress, and ends in ing ; — as, loving. 

121. The Prior-present participle denotes comple- 
tion ; — as, loved. 

122. The Compound participle denotes completion 
of an action before some other time mentioned. It is 
formed by prefixing the word having to the Prior-pre- 
sent participle; — as, Prior-present, loved; Compound, 
having loved. 

Tenses. 

123. Tenses mark the divisions of time. 

124. Time is naturally divided into present, past, 
and future. An action may be represented as con- 
tinuing or completed at the time spoken of; which gives 
rise to six Tenses, only two of which are expressed by 
distinct forms of the verb. The others require the aid 
of Auxiliaries. 

125. These Tenses are called the Prior-past, the 



VERBS. 31 

Past, the Prior-present, the Present, the Prior-future, 
and the Future. 

126. The Prior-past tense represents an action or 
event as completed prior to some other past time men- 
tioned ; — as, " James had learned his lesson/' 

127. The Past tense represents an action or event 
indefinitely as past ; — as, " James learned his lesson." 

128. The Prior-present tense represents an action 
as finished, and also conveys an allusion to the present ; 
—as, " James has learned his lesson/' 

129. The Present tense represents an action as now 
taking place ; — as, " James learns his lesson." 

130. The Prior future tense represents an action 
as about to take place prior to some future time men- 
tioned ; — as, " James will have learned his lesson." 

131. The Future tense represents an action indefi- 
nitely as yet to take place ; — as, " James will learn his 
lesson/' 

132. The Past and Present tenses have each two 
distinct forms ; — namely, the Simple and Emphatic, 

The Simple form expresses a simple fact. The 
Emphatic form expresses a simple fact with emphasis ; 
— as, Simple form, loves ; Emphatic, does love. 

Number and Person. 

133. Verbs have two numbers, the Singular and 
Plural; and three persons, the First, Second, and Third, 
corresponding to the numbers and persons of pronouns. 

Conjugation of Verbs. 

134. The conjugation of a verb is the regular com- 
bination of its modes, tenses, number?, and persons. 



S2 GRAMMATIC GUIDE. 

135. Id parsing, a verb is conjugated by giving its 
Past and Present tenses^ and its Prior-present participle ; 
— thus, 

Present. Past. Prior-present. 

Learn* Learned. Learned. 

The Conjugation of the Regular Transitive Verb 

To Learn. 

Boot, To learn. 

Principal Parte, Learn^ Learned, Learned- 

INFINITIVE MODE". 

Prior-present Tense. 
To have learned. 

Present Tense. 
To learn. 



INDICATIVE MODE.. 

Prior-past Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

I had learned. We had learned. 

5 You had learned. i You had learned, 

( Thou hadst learned. | Ye had learned. 

He had learned. They had learned, 



Past Tense (Simple form). 
Singular. Plural. 

I learned. We learned. 

You learned. C You learned. 

Thou learnedst. ( Ye learned. 

He learned. They learned, 

Past Tense (Emphatic form). 
Singular. Plural. 

I did learn. We did learn. 

You did learn. { You did learn. 

Thou didst learn. ( Ye did learn. 

He did learn. They did learn. 



VERBS. 33 

Prior-present Tense. 
Singular* Plural. 

I have learned. We have learned. 

You have learned. £ You have learned. 

Thou hast learned. \ Ye have learned. 

He has learned. They have learned. 

Present Tenge (Simple form). 
Singular. Plural. 

I learn. We learn. 

{ You learn. f You learn. 

I Thou learnest. ( Ye learn. 

He learns. They learn. 

Present Tense (Emphatic form). 
Singular. Plural. 

I do learn. We do learn. 

{ You do learn. i You do learn. 

I Thou dost learn. ( Ye do learn. 

He does or doth learn. They do learn. 

Prior-future Tense. 
Singular. 

I shall or will have learned. 
{ You shall or will have learned. 
\ Thou shalt or wilt have learned. 

He shall or will have learned. 

Plural. 

We shall or will have learned. 
{ You shall or will have learned. 
I Ye shall or will have learned. 

They shall or will have learned. 

Future Tense. 
Singular. 
I shall or will learn. 
$ You shall or will learn. 
I Thou shalt or wilt learn. 
He shall or will learn. 

Plural. 

We shall or will learn. 
V You shall or will learn. 
I Ye shall or will learn. 

They shall or will learn. 

2* 



34 GRAMMATIC GUIDE. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 

Prior-present Tense* 
Singular. 
I may, can, must, might, could, would, or should have 

learned. 
You may, can, must, might, could, would, or should have 

learned. 
Thou mayst, canst, must, mightst, couldst, wouldst, or 

shouldst have learned. 
He may, can, must, might, could, would, or should have 

learned. 

Plural. 

We may, can, must, might, could, would, or should have 

learned. 
You may, can, must, might, could, would, or should have 

learned. 
Ye may, can, must, might, could, would, or should have 

learned. 

They may, can, must, might, could, would, or should have 

learned. 

Future Tense. 
Singular. 
I may, can, must, might, couJd, would, or should learn. 



I 



You may, can, must, might, could, would, or should Jearn. 
Thou mayst,canst, must, mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst 

learn. 
He may, can, must, might, could, would, or should learn. 

Plural. 

We may, can, must, might, could, would, or should learn. 
You may, can, must, might, could, would, or should learn. 
Ye may, can, must, might, could, would, or should learn. 
They may, can, must, might, could, would, or should learn. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Singular. Plural. 

Learn, or Learn thou, Learn, or Learn ye or 

or Do thou learn. you, or Do ye learn. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present^ Learning. 

Prior-present , Learned. 

Compound, Having learned. 



VERBS. 3£ 

136, Conjugation of the Irregular Intransitive Verl 

To Be. 
Root. To Be. 

Principal Parts. 
Present, Am. Past, Was. Prior-present part, Been. 

■ INFINITIVE MODE. 

Prior-present Tense. 
To have been. 

Present Tense. 
To be. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Prior-past Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

I had been. We had been* 

£ You had been, i You had been,. 

| Thou hadst been. \ Ye had been. 

He had been, They had been. 



Past Tense. 



Singular. 
I was, 
You was. 
Thou wast 
He was. 



Plural. 

We were. 
$ You were. 
^ Ye were. 

They were. 



Prior-Present Tense. 



Singular. 
I have been. 
You have been. 
Thou hast been. 
He has been. 



Plural. 

We have been. 
C You have been. 
f Ye have been. 

They have been. 



Present Tense, 



Singular. 
I am. 
You are. 
Thou art, 
He is. 



Plural. 

We are. 
i You are. 
4 Ye are. 

They are. 



36 GRAMMATIC GUIDE. 

Prior-future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

I shall or will have been. We shall or will have been, 

$ You shall or will have been. { You shall or will have been, 

I Thou shalt or wilt have been. ( Ye shall or will have been. 

He shall or will have been. They shall or will have been. 

Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

I shall or will be. We shall or will be. 

5 You shall or will be. You shall or will be. 

| Thou shalt or wilt be. Ye shall or will be. 

He shall or will be. They shall or will be. 

POTENTIAL MOBE, 

Prior-present Tense. 

I may, can, must, might, could, would, or should have been. 
C You may, can, must, might, could, would, or should have been. 
} Thou mayst, canstmust, mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst 
( have been. 

He may, can, must, might, could, would, or should have been. 

Plural. 

We may, can, must, might, could, would, or should have been. 
{ You may, can, must, might, could, would, or should have been. 
\ Ye may, can, must, might, could, would, or should have been. 

They may, can, must, might, could, would, or should have 

been. 

Future Tense. 
Singular. 
I may, can, must, might, could, would, or should be. 
C You may, can, must, might, could, would, or should be. 
< Thou mayst, canst, must, mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst 
( be. 

He may, can, must, might, could, would, or should be. 

Plural. 

We may, can, must, might, could, would, or should be. 
$ You may, can, must, might, could, would, or should be. 
I Ye may, can, must, might, could, would, or should be. 

They may, can, must, might, could, would, or should be. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Singular. Plural. 

Be, or Be thou, Be ; or Be ye or you. 



VERBS, 



37 



PARTICIPLES. 



Prior-present^ 

Present^ 

Compound^ 



Been. 
Being. 



Having been, 



Note. — The Progressive form (so called) is formed by pre- 
fixing the irregular intransitive verb to be, through alu its 
modes and tenses, to the present participle. But, as the inflec- 
tion of the verb to be has been given, it is entirely useless to 
repeat it, as in parsing, the verb is to be disposed of as a verb, 
and the participle, as a participle ; so, also, in what is termed 
the Passive Voice. Therefore, nothing need be said about its 
conjugation. 



Irregular Verbs. 

137. An Irregular verb is one that does not form 
its Past tense and Prior-present participle by the ad- 
dition of d or ed to the present ; — as, 



Present. 


Past. 


Prior-present Part, 


Abide 


abode 


abode 


Am 


was 


been 


Arise 


arose 


arisen 


Awake 


awoke, R.* 


awaked 


Bake 


baked 


baken, R. 


Bear (to bring forth,) bare or bore 


born 


Bear (to carry) 


bore or bare 


borne 


Beat 


beat 


beaten or beat 


Begin 


began 


begun 


Bend 


bent, R. 


bent, R. 


Bereave 


bereft, R. 


bereft, R. 


Beseech 


besought 


besought 


Bid 


bade, bid 


bidden 


Bind 


bound 


bound 


Bite 


bit 


bitten, bit 


Bleed 


bled 


bled 


Blow 


blew 


blown 


Break 


broke, brake 


broken 


Breed 


bred 


bred 


Build 


built, R. 


built, R. 


Burst 


burst 


burst 


Buy 


bought 


bought 


Cast 


cast 


cast 



Conjugated regularly as well as irregularly. 



38 



GRAMMATIC GUIDE. 



Present. 
Catch 
Chide 
Choose 

Cleave (to adhere) 
Cleave (to split) 
Cling 
Clothe 
Come 
Cost 
Crow 
Creep 
Cut 

Dare (to venture) 
Deal 
Dig 
Do 
Draw 
Drive 
Drink 
Dwell 
Eat 
Fall 
Feed 
Feel 
Fight 
Find 
Flee 
Fling 
Fly 

Forbear 
Forget 
Forsake 
Freeze 
Get 
Gild 
Gird 
Give 
Go 

Grave 
Grind 
Grow 
Have 
Hang 
Hear 
Heave 
Hew 



Past. 


Prior-present Part 


caught, R. 


caught, R. 


chid 


chidden, chid 


chose 


chosen 


clave, R. 


cleaved 


clove or cleft 


cloven or cleft 


clung 


clung 


clothed 


clad, R. 


came 


come 


cost 


cost 


crew, R. 


crowed 


crept 


crept 


cut 


cut 


durst 


dared 


dealt, R. 


dealt, R. 


dug, R. 


dug, R. 


did 


done 


drew 


drawn 


drove 


driven 


drank 


drunk 


dwelt, R. 


dwelt, R. 


ate 


eaten 


fell 


fallen 


fed 


fed 


felt 


felt 


fought 


fought 


found 


found 


fled 


fled 


flung 


flung 


flew 


flown 


forbore 


forborne 


forgot 


forgotten, forgot 


forsook 


forsaken 


froze 


frozen 


gat or got 


gotten or got 


gilt, R. 


gilt, R. 


girt, R. 


girt, R. 


gave 


given 


went 


gone 


graved 


graven 


ground 


ground 


grew 


grown 


had 


had 


hung 


hung 


heard 


heard 


hove, R. 


hoven, R. 


hewed 


hewn, R. 



VERBS. 



39 



Present 


Past. 


Prior-present Part, 


Hide 


hid 


hidden, hid 


Hit 


hit 


hit 


Hold 


held or holden 


held or holden 


Hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


Keep 


kept 


kept 


Knit 


knit, R. 


knit or knitted 


Know 


knew 


known 


Lade 


laded 


laden 


Lay 


laid 


laid 


Lead 


led 


led 


Leave 


left 


left 


Lend 


lent 


lent 


Let 


let 


let 


Lie (to lie down) 


lay 


lain or lien 


Light 


lighted or lit 


lighted or lit 


Load 


loaded 


laden, R. 


Lose 


lost 


lost 


Make 


made 


made 


Mean 


meant 


meant 


Meet 


met 


met 


Mow 


mowed 


mown, R. 


Pay 


paid 


paid 


Put 


put 


put 


Q,uit 


quit, R. 


quit 


Read 


read 


read 


Rend 


rent 


rent 


Rid 


rid 


rid 


Ride 


rode 


rode, ridden 


Ring 


rang or rung 


rung 


Rise 


rose 


risen 


Rive 


rived 


riven 


Rot 


rotted 


rotten, R. 


Run 


ran 


run 


Saw 


sawed 


sawn, R. 


Say 


said 


said 


See 


saw 


seen 


Seek 


sought 


sought 


Sell 


sold 


sold 


Send 


sent 


sent 


Set 


set 


set 


Shake 


shook 


shaken 


Shape 


shaped. 


shapen, R. 


Shave 


shaved 


shaven, R. 


Shear 


shore, R. 


shorn 


Show 


showed 


shown 


Shoe 


shod 


shod 



40 



GRAMMATIC GUIDE- 



Present, 
Shoot 
Shrink 
Shred 
Shut 
Sing 
Sink 
Sit 
Slay 
Sleep 
Slide 
Sling 
Slink 
Slit 
Smite 
Sow 
Speak 
Speed 
Spend 
Spill 
Spin 
Spit 
Split 
Spread 
Spring 
Stand 
Steal 
Stick 
Sting 
Stride 
Strike 
String 
Strive 
Strew 
Strow 
Swear 
Sweat 
Sweep 
Swell 
Swim 
Swing 
Take 
Teach 
Tear 
Tell 
Think 
Thrive 



Past, 


Prior-present Part. 


shot 


shot 


shrank 6r shrunk 


shrunk 


shred 


shred 


shut 


shut 


sang or sung 


sung 


sank or sunk 


sunk 


sat 


sat or sitten 


slew 


slain 


slept 


slept 


slid 


slidden 


slang, slung 


slung 


slank, slunk 


slunk 


slit, R. 


slit or slitted 


smote 


smitten 


sowed 


sown, R. 


spake, spoke 


spoken 


sped 


sped 


spent 


spent 


spilt 


spilt, R. 


spun 


spun 


spat, spit 


spit or spitten 


split, R. 


split, R. 


spread 


spread 


sprang or sprung 


sprung 


stood 


stood 


stole 


stolen 


stuck 


stuck 


stung 


stung 


strode or strid 


stridden 


struck 


struck or stricken 


strung 


strung 


strove 


striven 


strewed 


strewed, strewn 


strowed 


strown, strowed 


swore, sware 


sworn 


sweat 


sweat 


swept 


swept 


swelled 


swollen, R. 


swam, swum 


swum 


swung 


swung 


took 


taken 


taught 


taught 


tore or tare 


torn 


told 


told 


thought 


thought 


throve 


thriven 



ADVERBS, 



41 



Present Past. Prior -present Part. 

Throw threw thrown 

Thrust thrust thrust 

Tread trod trodden 

Wax waxed waxen, R. 

Wear wore worn 

Weave wove woven 

Weep wept wept 

Win won won 

Wind wound, R. wound 

Work wrought, R. wrought, worked 

Wring wrung, R. wrung 

Write wrote written 

Defective Verbs. 

138. A Defective verb is one that wants some of 
its parts ; — thus, 

Present. Past. Prior-present Part. 

Beware 

Can could 

May might 

Shall should 

Will would 

Must must 

Ought ought 

quoth 



CHAPTER VI 



ADVERBS, 

139. An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb ; 
— as, " He walks lightly." 

140. Adverbs frequently modify adjectives ; — as, 
" She was remarkably studious/' 

141. Adverbs also modify other adverbs ; — as, " She 
speaks very correctly." 

142. The perfect classification of adverbs is nearly 
impossible, on account of their numerous different 



42 GRAMMATIC GUIDE. 

uses, The following are some of the most important 
classes. 

143. Quality or Manner simply. — Happily, prudently, 
well, ill, and many others formed from adjectives by 
annexing ly or changing le into ly ; — as, wise, wisely ; 
honorable, honorably. 

Place. — Here, there, where, elsewhere, anywhere, 
somewhere, nowhere, herein, whither, thither, hither, 
forward, downward, upward, &c. 

Time. — Now, to-day, then, when, soon, often, al- 
ready, before, lately, yesterday, weekly, yearly, monthly, 
always, &c. 

Number. — Once, twice, thrice, &c. 

Order. — First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, &c. 

Quantity. — Much, little, sufficiently, how much, 
how great, enough, &c. 

Doubt. — Perhaps, possibly, perad venture, perchance. 

Affirmation. — Verily, truly, undoubtedly, yea, yes, 
certainly, &e. 

Negation. — Nay, no, not, nowise, by no means, in 
no wise, not at all, &c. 

Interrogation. — How, why, when, wherefore, &c. 

Comparison. — More, most, better, best, worse, 
worst, less, least, &c. 

144. Some adverbs admit of comparison like ad- 
jectives ; — as, soon, sooner, soonest, wisely, more wisely, 
most wisely ; much, more, most, &c. 

145. Short phrases expressing time, place, manner, 
&c, are called adverbial phrases, and are parsed as sim- 
ple adverbs ; — as, in short, in fine, now and then, by and 
by, to and fro, long ago, &c. 

146. Some adverbs connect as well as qualify; — as, 
"I was absent when he came." 



PREPOSITIONS. 



43 



CHAPTER VII 



PREPOSITIONS. 



147. Prepositions connect words and show the 
relation between them. 

148. The following list comprises nearly all the 
principal prepositions : 



About 


Beside 


Past 


Above 


Besides 


Round 


Across 


Between 


Since 


After 


Betwixt 


Through 


Against 

Along 

Amid 


Beyond 

By 

Down 


Throughout 

Till 

To 


Amidst 


From 


Towards 


Among 


In 


Under 


Amongst 


Into 


Underneath 


Around 


Instead of 


Unto 


Aslant 

At 

Athwart 


Near 
Nigh 
Of 


Upon 

Up 

With 


Before 


Off 


Within 


Behind 


On 


Without 


Below 


Over 




Beneath 


Out of 





149. Every preposition requires an objective case 
after it ; but when a preposition does not govern an 
objective case, it becomes an adverb ; — as, " He walks 
about." 

150. In such phrases as, cast up, hold out, the words 
up, out, must be considered as a part of the .verb. 



44 GRAMMATIC GUIDE. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

151. A Conjunction connects words and senten- 
ces ; — as, " You and I must remain, but Henry can go 
and see them." 

The words belonging to this part of speech cannot 
satisfactorily be classed. 

152. The following is a list of the words which are 
most frequently used as conjunctions : 



And 


If 


Then 


Although 


Lest 


Therefore 


As 


Neither 


Though 


Because 


Nor 


Unless 


Both 


Notwithstanding 


Wherefore 


But 


Or 


Yet 


Either 


Since 




For 


Than 





CHAPTER IX. 



INTERJECTIONS. 



153. The Interjection is a voice of nature, rather 
than of art, used merely to express some passion or 
emotion, but they are hardly worthy of being placed 
among the " Parts of Speech." 

154. The following are the words most used for 
this purpose : 



Ah! 


Ha! 


Oh! 


Alas ! 


Lo! 


Pshaw ! 


Fie! 


0! 


Ho! 



155. Other parts of speech are frequently used to 



DERIVATION. 45 

perform the office of Interjections ; — as, hark ! wonder- 
ful ! strange ! mercy ! 

They are, however, different parts of speech, "\yhen 
the ellipsis is supplied they will always be found to be- 
long to other classes of words. 



CHAPTER X. 

DERIVATION. 

156. Derivation is that part of Etymology which 
treats of the origin and primary signification of words. 

157. All, or nearly all, the words of any cultivated 
language may be reduced to families ; — as, accede, re- 
cede, succeed, exceed, proceed, secede, precede, inter- 
cede, concede, succeeding, proceeding, interceding, &c. 
Impede, impediment, pedestal, pediment, pedal, pedicle, 
expeditious, expedient, &c. 

158. Words are divided into two classes ; — Primi- 
tive and Derivative. 

159. A Primitive word is one which is not derived 
from any other word or words in the language ; — as, 
man, like. 

160. A Derivative word is one which is derived 
from some other word or words in the language ; — as, 
manly, dislike. 

161. Adjectives denoting plenty are derived from 
nouns by adding y ; — as, wealth, wealthy; might, mighty. 

162. Adjectives denoting the material of which a 
thing is made, are derived from nouns by adding en ; — 
as, gold, golden ; wood, wooden. 

163. Adjectives denoting abundance are derived 
from nouns by adding /&/; — as, sin, sinful. 



46 GRAMMATIC GUIDE. 

164. Adjectives denoting want are derived from 
nouns by adding less ; — as, thought, thoughtless. 

165. Adjectives denoting likeness are derived from 
nouns by adding ly ; as, man, manly. 

166. Substantives or nouns are derived from adjec- 
tives, by adding ness ; as, white, whiteness ; also by 
adding ship ; as, hard, hardship. 

167. Substantives are derived from other substan- 
tives by adding hood, ship, ery, wick, dom, ian, rick, 
ment, age. 

168. Nouns, formed by adding hood, denote char- 
acter or qualities; — as, boy, boyhood ; man, manhood. 

169. Nouns, formed by adding ship, denote employ- 
ment, state, or condition; — as, friend, friendship. 

170. Nouns, formed by adding ery, denote action 
or habit ; — as, slave, slavery ; fool, foolery. 

171. Nouns, formed by adding wick, dom, and rick, 
denote dominion, jurisdiction, or condition ; — -as, baili- 
wick, bishoprick; kingdom, freedom. 

172. Nouns, formed by adding ian, denote profes- 
sion ; — as, physic, physician. 

173. Nouns, formed by adding ment and age, denote 
act or habit ; — as, command, commandment ; coin, 
coinage. 

174. Some nouns have the form of diminutives, and 
are formed by adding the terminations kin, ling, ock, el ; 
as, lamb, lambkin ; goose, gosling ; hill, hillock ; cock, 
cockerel. 



175. Nearly all the derivative words of our language 
are formed by the aid of prefixes and suffixes. 

176. A Prefix is a letter, syllable, or word added 
to the beginning of some other word, to vary or modify 
its primitive meaning. 



LATIN PREFIXES. 47 

177. A Suffix is a letter, syllable, or word joined 
to the end of some other word, to vary its meaning. 

178. Two or more prefixes are sometimes found 
in the same words ; — as, rediscover, re and dis. 

179. Two or more suffixes are sometimes found 
in the same word ; — as, manfully, ful and ly. 



ENGLISH PREFIXES. 

A. Signifies, on, to, in, at ; — as, ashore, afar, asleep. 

Be. Signifies about, on, over ; — as, bedew, be- 
daub. 

By. Signifies near, close, upon, over ;— as, by- 
stander, fo/path. 

For. Signifies from or against ; — as,jfbrbid,/brbear. 

Fore. Signifies before; — as,jforesee. 

Mis. From miss, to err, signifies wrong; — as, 
misguide. 

Over. Signifies above, beyond ; — as, overflow. 

Out. Signifies without, beyond ; — <as, outrun, out- 
side. 

Un. Signifies privation or negation ; — as, unload, 
w/iknown. 

Under. Signifies beneath ;—as, underlay* 

Up. Signifies aloft, on high ;— -as, upvear* 

With. Signifies opposition ; — as, withstand. 



LATIN PREFIXES. 

180. Prefixes derived from the Latin, and their 
signification. 

A, Ab, or Abs. Signifies from ; — as, abstract, to 
take from ; adduction, the carrying from or away. 



48 GRAMMATIC GUIDE. 

Ad. Signifies to ; — as, adjoin, to join to ; when Ad 
is prefixed to words beginning w T ith c, f g, I, n, p, r, s, 
t, the letter d is changed into those letters respectively ; 
— as, accede, instead of accede ; affix, instead of ad- 
fix ; aggrieve, instead of aggrieve ; a/location, instead 
of adlocation ; enumerate, instead of Enumerate ; 
appending, instead of Spending ; arrest, instead of 
direst ; assign, instead of assign ; attract, instead of 
#dtract. 

Ambi. Signifies both, two, doubtful; — as, ambigu- 
ous, ambidexter. 

Ante. Signifies before ; — as, antedate, antecede, 
to date before, to go before. 

Bene. Signifies well; — as, benevolence, benedic- 
tion, doing good, speaking well. 

Circum. Signifies around ; — as, czrcimnavigate, 
to sail around. 

Con. Signifies together ; — as, convoke, to call to- 
gether. Con is changed into Col, Cor, when the word, 
with which it is compounded, begins with /, g, or r ;— 
as collect, correlative. Com and Cog have the same 
signification as Con ; — as, compress, to press together ; 
cognate, joined together by blood. 

Contra. Signifies against ; — as, co?z£radict, to 
speak against. It is sometimes changed to Counter ; — 
as, counteract, to act against. 

De. Signifies from ; — as, deduce, to draw from ; 
dethrone, to take from the throne. 

Di, Dis, Dif. Signify separation : — as, disarm, to 
deprive of arms. They sometimes signify negation ; — 
as, dishonest, not honest. 

E, Ex, Ef, Ec. Signify out, out of, from ; — as, ex- 
clude, to shut out ; emerge, to come out. 



LATIN PREFIXES. 49 

Extra. Signifies beyond ; — as, extraordinary, be- 
yond that which is ordinary, or more than ordinary. 

In. Signifies not when prefixed to adjectives ; — 
as, ignoble, not noble. When prefixed to verbs, &c, 
it gives force to the signification ; — as, infix, to fasten. 
Im, Ig, II, Ir, have the same properties, and perform 
the same office. 

Inter. Signifies among ; — as, intermix, to mix 
among ; interweave, intermingle, to weave among, to 
mingle among. 

Juris. Signifies right, legal; — as, Jurisdiction, 
legal right over ; y^risprudence, legal science. 

Male, Mal. Signify bad, evil; as, malediction, 
speaking evil ; ma/efactor, a doer of w T rong. 

Manu. Signifies a hand ; — as, manufacture, to 
make by hand. 

Multi. Signifies many ; — as, multiform, many 
forms ; multiplex, many- fold. 

Non. Denotes negation ; — as, nonsense, not sense. 

Ob, Oc, Of, Op. Signify before, against, towards, 
in, or on ;— -as, o&jection, brought against ; occur, to 
come before ; offence, oppose. 

Omni. Signifies all ; — as, omnipotent, all-powerful. 

Per. Signifies through or by ; — as, pervade, to 
go through ; perchance, by chance. 

Post. Signifies after ; — as, postscript, an after 
writing. 

Pre. Signifies before ;- — as, precede, to go before. 

Pro. Signifies/or, forth, or forward ; — as, pronoun, 
for a noun ; produce, to bring forth ; propel, to drive 
forward. 

Re. Signifies again or back ; — as. reenter, to enter 
again; recall, to callback. 

3 



50 GRAMMATIC GUIDE. 

Se. Denotes separation ; — as, secede, to withdraw 
from. 

Sub. Signifies under ; — as, subscrihe, to write 
under. It changes b into c,f g, p, when compounded 
with words beginning with these letters ; — as, succeed, 
suffuse, suggest support. 

Super. Signifies beyond, above, upon ; — as, super- 
fine, over or above fine ; sz^pernatural, beyond natural. 

Supra, Sur. Signify beyond, above; — as, supra- 
mundane, above the world ; surcharged, overcharged. 

Soli. Signifies alone; — as, solitary, living alone; 
so/zfidian, faith alone. 

Sine. Signifies without; — as, sine-die, without day. 

Trans. Signifies over, across, beyond ; — as, trans- 
fer, to carry over ; trans- Atlantic, beyond the Atlantic. 

Tri. Signifies three ; — as, Zrzangle, three angles. 



GREEK PREFIXES. 

181. Prefixes derived from the Greek, and their 
significations. 

A or An. Denote privation ; — as, atheist, without 
a God ; anarchy, without government. 

Amphi. Signifies about, around ; — as, amphithea- 
tre ; an edifice in a circular form. 

Arch. Signifies chief; — as, archangel, an angel of 
the highest order, or a chief angel ; archbishop, a chief 
bishop. 

Astro. Signifies a star ;— as, astronomy, the law 
of stars. 

Auto. Signifies one's self — as, apograph, one's 
own hand-writing. 



SUFFIXES. 51 

Anti. Signifies against ; — as, anfa'-slavery. 

Cata. Signifies against; — as, Catabaptist, one 
who opposes baptism. 

Dia, Di. Signify through; — as, diameter, meas- 
uring through. 

Geo. Signifies the earth ; — as, geography, a de- 
scription of the earth. 

Mono. Signifies single ; — as, monosyllable, one 
syllable. 

Ortho. Signifies right ; — as, ortfAography, writing 
correctly. 

Philo, Phil. Signify a lover ; — as, philosopher, a 
lover of wisdom ; jo/n'/anthropist, a lover of mankind. 

S yn. Signifies together, with ; — as, synthesis, putting 
together. It takes the forms Sy, Syl, Sym ; — as sys- 
tem, syllable, sympathy. 

Theo. Signifies God; — as, Geology, word of God. 



SUFFIXES. 

A Suffix is a letter, syllable, or word, joined to the 
end of another word, to vary its meaning. 

Able, Ible, Ble. Imply power, and may be ren- 
dered by the expressions, that may be, can be, capable 
of being, Jit to be ; — as, payable, that may be paid ; 
audible, that may be heard ; flexible, that may be bent. 

Ance, Ancy, Ence, Ency. Denote state or con- 
dition of, act of result of ; — as, dependence or depend- 
ency, the state of hanging from a supporter ; con- 
trivance, the act of inventing. 

Ant, Ent. Denote person or thing ; — as, defend- 
ant, one who defends; president, one who presides. 



52 GRAMMATIC GUIDE. 

In most other cases they denote power or quality ; — as, 
refulgent, the property of shining. 

Ation, Tion, Ion, Sion, Cation. Denote the act 
or state of being ; — as, union, the act of joining ; civ- 
ilization, the act of civilizing ; conviction, the act of 
convicting ; admission, the act of admitting. 

Ar, Ary, Ard, Ado, Ate, Ive, Oso, Ster. Denote 
person or thing ; — as, luminary, that which gives light ; 
beggar, one who begs ; drunkard, one who gets drunk ; 
bravado, one who boasts ; graduate, one who gradu- 
ates ; captiue, one who is captured ; virtuoso, one who 
is skilled in the fine arts ; teamster, one who drives a 
team. 

An, Er, Or, Ian, Cian, Ast, Ess, Ress, Ee, Eer, 
1st, Ite, Ine, San, Zen, Ix. Denote the person who, in 
nouns ; — as, historian, one who understands history. 

Ar, Ary, Ic, Ac, Al, Ical, Ile, Ine, Tial, Cial. De- 
note like, pertaining to, belonging to ; — as, lunar, per- 
taining to the moon ; planetary, pertaining to the 
planets. 

Age, Denotes rank ; — as, parentage, the rank of 
a parent. 

Ive. As a termination of adjectives, denotes ten- 
dency to, relation to, power of ; — as, expansive, having 
the power to expand. 

Ity, Cy, Ty. Denote, when the terminations of 
nouns, the state, condition, thing itself, quality of, power 
of; — as, humility, the state of being humble. 

Ment. Denotes state, act, effect ; — as, command- 
ment, the act of commanding. 

Lock. Denotes union ; — as, padlock, wedlock. 

It would hardly be expedient to continue this list farther, 
as the suffixes do not admit of a complete classification, and 
only a few of the most common ones are found in our common 
grammars. See Town's Analysis. 



SYNTAX. 53 



PART III. 

SYNTAX. 

1. Syntax treats of the proper construction of 
sentences, — and embraces government, agreement, and 
relation of words. 

2. Government is that power which one part of 
speech has over another, in directing its mode, tense, 
number, person, or case. 

3. Agreement is the correspondence of one word 
to another in gender, number, person, or case. 

4. Relation of words, is their dependence or con- 
nection, according to the sense, or construction of the 
sentence. 



SENTENCES. 

5. A Sentence is an assemblage of words making 
complete sense. 

6. Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound, 

7. A simple sentence consists of only one subject 
and predicate ; — as, " Idleness is an enemy to happi- 
ness. 

8. A compound sentence consists of two or more 
simple sentences connected together ; — as, " We should 
deal justly, love mercy, and walk humbly with God." 

9. The Subject is that of which something is af- 
firmed ; — as, " Truth will prevail." 



54 GRAMMATIC GUIDE. 

10. The Predicate expresses that which is affirmed 
of the subject ; — as, " Truth will prevail ;" truth is the 
subject, and will prevail the predicate. 

11. A Phrase is a combination of words not 
making a complete sentence ; — as, " Esteeming you 
highly." 

12. An Adjunct is a word, or several words, used 
to explain or modify other words ; — as, " He bent 
beneath the headsman's stroke." The whole phrase, 
beneath the headsman's stroke, is an adjunct of bent : 
the and headsman's are also adjuncts of stroke. 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

13. The Subject is either grammatical or logical. 

14. The grammatical subject is either some noun, 
or word standing instead of a noun, in the nominative 
case. 

15. The logical subject consists of the grammatical 
subject with its modifiers ; — as, " The hand of the 
diligent maketh rich." " Hand " is the grammatical 
subject, and " the hand of the diligent " is the logical 
subject. 

16. The Subject is either simple or compound. 

17. A simple subject is a single noun, or word 
standing instead of a noun, with its modifiers — as, 
" Modesty wins the heart." " The righteousness of the 
upright shall deliver them." 

18. A compound subject consists of two or more 
simple subjects, having but one predicate ; — as, " Honor 
and shame from no condition rise." 

19. The Predicate is either grammatical or logical. 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 55 

20. The grammatical predicate is the verb alone ; — 
as, " Indolence destroys all our happiness/' 

21. The logical predicate consists of the gramma- 
tical predicate with its modifiers ; — as, " Indolence de- 
stroys all our happiness." " Destroys " is the gram- 
matical predicate, and " destroys all our happiness" 
the logical predicate. 

22. The predicate, like the subject, is either simple 
or compound. 

23. A simple predicate consists of a simple finite 
verb ; — as, " Life is short" 

24. A compound predicate consists of one or more 
simple predicates, belonging to the same subject ; — as, 
" Education elevates, expands, and enriches the mind." 

25. When the verb is transitive, the logical predicate 
always contains an object, which is the thing affected 
by the action of the verb. It is grammatical or logical. 

26. The grammatical object is the objective case 
alone ; — as, " Man often mistakes his best interests." 

27. The logical object is the grammatical object 
with its modifiers ; — as, " Man often mistakes his best 
interests." Interests is the grammatical object, and 
his best interests the logical object. " We should obey 
the laws of our country." Laws is the grammatical 
object, and laws of our country the logical object. 



56 GRAMMATIC GUIDE, 



RULES OP SYNTAX. 



28. The Rules of Syntax are those laws which 
determine the government, agreement, relation, and 
arrangement of words in sentences. 

Rule I. — Nouns and Pronouns. 

29. A noun or pronoun, when it is the subject 
of a verb, is in the nominative case. 

Illus. — " The rainbow strides the earth and air." Rain- 
bow, being the subject, is in the nominative case. In parsing^ 
we say it is the subject of the verb strides. 

Rule II. — Nouns and Pronouns. 

30. A noun or pronoun, when the name of a 
person or thing addressed, is in the nominative 
case independent. 

Illus. — " Ye winds, ye unseen currents of the air, 
Softly ye played a few brief hours ago. 7 " 
Winds and currents are the names of things addressed, and 
are in the nominative case independent. 

Rule III. — Nouns and Pronouns. 

31. A noun or pronoun, joined with a parti- 
ciple, and independent of the rest of the sen- 
tence, is in the nominative case absolute. 

Illus. — " The storm having abated, we pursued our jour- 
ney." 

Rule IV. — Nouns and Pronouns. 

32. The object of a preposition or a transitive 
verb, is in the objective case. 

Illus. — " I have no desire for wealth." Desire is the object 
of the verb have, and weaftA is the object of the preposition/or. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 57 

Rule V. — Nouns and Pronouns, 

33. Two or more nouns or pronouns, in the 
same sentence, signifying the same thing, are put, 
by apposition, in the same case. 

Illus.— " Cicero, the orator, flourished in the time of Cati- 
line, the conspirator." Cicero, orator, referring to the same 
person, are put by apposition in the same case ; also, Catiline 
and conspirator. 

Rule VI. — Pronouns. 

34. Pronouns must agree with the nouns for 
which they stand, in gender and number. 

Illus. — " If my friend needeth, I will assist him." Him 
agrees with friend in number and gender. 

Rule VII. — Adjectives. 

35. Adjectives belong to the nouns which 
they modify. 

Illus. — " A contented man enjoys the greater portion of 
his life." A, contented, modify man j the, greater, modify por- 
tion ; and his modifies life. 

Rule VIII.— Verbs. 

36. A verb and its subject must agree in 
number and person. 

Illus. — i: Want of occupation prevents the enjoyment of 
life." Want being of the third person, or subject of the address, 
and of the singular number, the verb prevents must be also. 

Rule IX. — Verbs and Nouns. 

37. Two or more nouns or pronouns of the 
singular number, connected by the conjunction 
and, require verbs and pronouns in the plural. 

Illus. — " Honor and shame from no condition rise." The 
nouns honor and shame, connected by and, have a plural verb, 
rise. " Wealth and want are both temptations 5 they cherish 
pride and discontent." 

3* 



58 GRAMMATIC GUIDE. 

Rule X. — Verbs and Pronouns. 

38. Two or more nouns or pronouns, in the 
singular, connected by the conjunction or or nor, 
require verbs and pronouns in the singular, 

Illus. — " My father or brother will go, but he will soon 
return." 

Rule XL — Infinitives. 

39. The infinitive mode may follow a verb, 
adjective, noun, pronoun, or adverb, on which it 
depends. 

Illus. — " We may ever dare to perform our duty." The 
infinitive to perform depends upon may dare in this ease. " It 
is pleasant to ramble over hill and dale." 

Rule XII. — Participles. 

40. Participles refer to nouns or pronouns, 
and modify them. 

Illus. — ; ' The militia advancing met the enemy returning" 
Advancing refers to militia, and returning refers to enemy. 

Rules XIII. — Adverbs. 

41. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and 
other adverbs. 

Illus. — " He listened attentively." " His prospects became 
decidedly better." " The lecturer treated the subject very 
scien if call y." 



OBSERVATIONS ON RULES. 

Rule I — Nouns and Pronouns. 

42. A noun or pronoun, when it is the subject of a verb, 
is in the nominative case ; — as, "Thou shall not bear false 
witness." 

43. A verb in the infinitive mode sometimes performs the 
office of the noun or pronoun in the nominative ; — as, " To be 
contents his natural desire." Here, and in all such cases, the 



OBSERVATIONS ON RULES, 59 

Infinitive mode should be disposed of in the same manner as 
though it were a noun. It is called a verbal noun. 

44. A sentence is frequently used as the subject of the 
finite verb ; — as, " ' Do unto others as ye would that others should 
do unto you? is the golden rule of our Saviour." 

45. The nominative is sometimes omitted ; — as, " Lives 
there, who loves his pain?" The subject of the imperative is 
frequently omitted ; — as, " Strike till the last arm'd foe ex- 
pires !" " Carrie to the bridal chamber. Death !" 

46. The nominative generally precedes the verb in declara- 
tory and conditional sentences ; but it usually follows the 
principal verb or an auxiliary, in interrogative and imperative 
sentences ; — as, " Must education be acquired by ourselves ¥* 
u Seest thou shadows sailing by?" t; Come thou, without 
delay." 

47. The nominative is also placed after the verb when the 
sentence is introduced by the adverb there ; — as, " There is no 
longer any room for hope," 

Rule II. — Nouns and Pronouns. 

48. A noun or pronoun, when the name of a person or thing 
addressed, is in the nominative case independent; — as. " Hail! 
holy Light, offspring of heaven, first-born." Light is in the 
nominative case independent, being neither the subject nor 
object of a verb. 

" Yet once more, O ! ye laurels, and once more 
Ye myrtles brown, with ivy never sere." 
Nouns denoting time, measure, distance, direction, or place, 
are in the nominative independent when they do not depend 
upon any other word. 

Rule III. — Nouns and Pronouns. 

49. A noun or pronoun, joined with a participle, and inde- 
pendent of the rest of the sentence, is in the nominative case 
absolute ; — as, " The ship having sailed, we pursued our jour- 
ney by land." " The sailing of the ship " was independent of 
the journey," although the "journey" depended somewhat 
upon ;i the sailing of the ship." " We being exceedingly tossed 
the next day, they lightened the ship." In English, the abso- 
lute case is the nominative. In the sentence above, the pronoun 
we of the first person, joined to the participle being, is not the 
subject of any verb, nor is it connected with any word of which 
it can be the regimen, — but it is in the nominative case. 

Rule IV. — Nouns and Pronouns, 

50. The object of a transitive verb, or a preposition, is in 
the objective case ; — as, " He tasted death for every man." 
Death is the object of the action expressed by the verb tasted } 



60 GRAMMATIC GUIDE, 

by which it is governed, and man is the object of relation ex- 
pressed by the preposition/or, and is governed by it. 

51. The objective case may be any word or sentence used 
for or instead of a noun; — as. " He will punish the bad" "You 
perceive how few of your many friends are left" 

52. The infinitive mode is frequently used as the object of 
a verb ; — as, " He loves to study," i. e. " he loves study." 

53. The objective case generally follows the verb. 

54. The relative, when made the object of the verb, gen- 
erally precedes it; — as, " Whom do I love so much?" " Whom 
ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you." 

55. The objective is sometimes found before the verb by 
which it is governed, in poetry ; — as, 

" Whoso with patient and inquiring mind 
Would seek the stream of science to ascend j" 
i. e. Would seek to ascend the stream of science. 
" The sailor, midst the dangerous main, 
Full many a lovely region sees ;" 
i. e. Sees full many a lovely region. 

56. Some transitive verbs govern two objectives ; — as, " He 
taught me grammar." " They gave him vinegar to drink." 
" They elected him president." 

57. Some intransitive verbs are followed by the objective 
case of a noun of the same or a kindred signification ; — as-, 
" Let us run the race, which is set before us." " If any man 
see his brother sin a sin, which is not unto death." 

58. In poetry, an intransitive verb is sometimes followed by 
a pronoun in the objective case ; — as, " I'd sit me down and cry." 

Rule V. — Nouns and Pronouns. 

59. Two or more nouns or pronouns, in the same sentence,, 
signifying the same thing, are put by apposition in the same 
case; — as, "John the Baptist was beheaded." 

60. A noun is sometimes in apposition with a phrase or 
sentence ; — as, " They banished me from my country ; a wrong 
which I can never forget." 

61. A noun denoting a whole, is sometimes followed by 
words in apposition with it, denoting the parts of which it is 
composed ; — as, " The scholars were all engaged, some in read- 
ing, some in spelling, and others in writing." " They fled, 
every man to his tent." 

Rule VI. — Pronouns, 

62. Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they 
stand in gender and number ; — as, " The rivers, which flow into 
the sea." " Vice, which no man practices with impunity, 
proved his destruction." " Thou, who writest, didst speak." 



OBSERVATIONS ON RULES, 61 

63. The relative who is used in referring to persons, 'which to 
animals and things, and that to either persons, animals, or things. 

64. " Beware of false prophets, which come to you in sheep's 
clothing." In this sentence, which is improperly used instead 
of who. It should be, " Beware of false prophets, who come to 
you in sheep's clothing." 

65. The relative should be placed as near the antecedent as 
possible, to avoid ambiguity. 

66. When there are two antecedents, care is necessary in 
referring the relative to its proper antecedent. In some cases 
the termination of the verb, by indicating the person of the 
relative, shows the antecedent; — as, " I am the man who com- 
mands you." If who refers to /, it should read, " I who command 
you, am the man ;" but if who refers to man, then is the sen- 
tence correct. 

67. The relative Fometimes refers to a whole clause as its 
antecedent ; — as, " The resolution was passed by the meeting, 
which excited much jealousy." i. e. The passage of the resolu- 
tion excited much jealousy. 

68. The relative sometimes refers to a verb for its antece- 
dent; — as, "He loved to read, which improved his mind." 

69. The antecedent pronoun of the third person is often 
omitted; — as, "Who steals my purse, (he) steals trash." 
" Whom he would, he slew ;" i. e. u Those whom he would, he 
slew." 

70. "1 will give it to whomsoever may ask." In this sen- 
tence, c; whomsoever " has been said to have a double construc- 
tion ; that is, it is both the object of relation expressed by the 
preposition to, and the subject of the verb may ask. But the 
relative must be the subject of the verb may ask, whereas 
it is in the objective case. It cannot therefore be the sub- 
ject of may ask, neither can it be governed by the preposition 
to, and is therefore a solecism. It should read, "I will give it 
to him, whosoever may ask." 

71. The relatives who and which are sometimes understood ; 
— as, " The friend I visited yesterday has left." " The friend 
(whom) I visited yesterday, has left." 

72. Both antecedent and relative are often understood after 
a comparative ; — as, " The damage was much less than we 
expected." " The damage was much less than that which we 
expected." 

Rule VII. — Adjectives. 

73. Adjectives belong to the nouns which they modify; — 
as, " An honest man." 

74. Adjectives sometimes modify other adjectives, when the 
latter are formed from nouns; — as, " The good boy's hat." 



62 GRAMMATIC GUIDE. 

75. Adjectives are often used as nouns; — as, "The good 
chall be saved." " The honest have prosperity." They are 
disposed of in the same manner as nouns. 

76. Adjectives are often used as adverbs, and as such modify 
the same parts of speech ; — as, u Drink deep or taste not the 
Pierian spring." " Soft sighed the flute." 

77. The adjective is commonly placed before the noun 
which it modifies ; — as, " A generous man." " A gallant 
warrior." 

78. The adjective follows the noun, when it is intimately con- 
nected with some other word by which its meaning is modified ; 
— as, " A man, faithful to his employer." For the sake of 
emphasis ;— as, " Hail ! bard divine !" " Alexander the great." 
" Wisdom infinite." 

79. When there are two or more adjectives connected with 
the same noun, they sometimes follow it; — as, "A man, wise, 
good, and merciful" 

80. When the subject and attribute are connected by the 
verb to be; — as, " That man is happy." 

81. When the adjective expresses some circumstance of the 
object of a transitive verb ; — as, " Drunkenness renders its vic- 
tim miserable." 

Rule V III.— Verbs. 

82. The verb and its subject must agree in number and 
person. 

83. Every verb, except a verb in the infinitive mode, or a 
participle, must have a subject or nominative expressed or un- 
derstood. Every nominative, when the subject, must have a 
verb expressed or understood, except the case absolute and 
independent. 

84. When the verb comes between two nouns, particular 
regard must be had to that which is more naturally its subject, 
and to that which stands nearer the verb ; — as, " His meat was 
locusts and wild honey." u The wages of sin is death." One 
of the nouns is the nominative to the verb, and the other nomi- 
native after the verb. 

85. The verb generally follows its subject, but precedes in 
the following cases. When the sentence is interrogative ;— as, 
11 Lives Webster where he did ?" When a command is given ; 
— as, " Read thou." When a wish is expressed; — as, "Long 
live the king." When a supposition is expressed without the 
connective if; — as, " Were 1 a scholar." When the sentence 
is expressive of vehement emotion ; — as, " Great L our God." 
u Blessed are they that mourn." 

Rule IX. — Verbs and Pronouns. 

86. Two or more nouns or pronouns in the singular number, 



OBSERVATIONS ON RULES. 63 

connected by the conjunction and, require verbs and pro- 
nouns in the plural ; — as, " Both life and death are uncertain." 
"James and Henry were good boys, and they loved to study." 

87. When two or more nouns singular, denoting the same 
thing, are taken conjointly, the verb must be singular; — as, 
u The renowned patriot and statesman has f alien." 

88. When two or more nouns singular, denoting different 
things, are taken conjointly, and are modified by a distributive 
adjective, they require a verb singular ; — as, " Every man, 
woman and child, was saved" 

89. When the nouns or pronouns are of different persons, 
the first person is preferred to the second, and the second to the 
third ; — as, " He and I share it between us." 

90. The conjunction is often omitted ; — as, " Honor, justice, 
religion itself, were disregarded." 

Rule X. — Verbs and Pronouns. 

91. Two or more nouns or pronouns singular, connected 
by the conjunction or or nor, require verbs and pronouns in 
the singular ; — as, " Man's happiness or misery is, in a great 
measure, in his own power." " Man is not like a watch or a 
clock, which moves as it is moved." 

92. When singular pronouns of different persons, or a noun 
and a pronoun of the first or second person, are connected by 
or or nor, the verb agrees in person with the one nearer it; — 
as, " I or you are guilty." 

93. When a noun or pronoun singular, is connected by or 
or nor to a noun or pronoun plural, the verb must be plural; — 
as, " Neither poverty nor riches were injurious to him." 

Rule XL— Infinitives. 

94. The infinitive mode may follow a verb, adjective, noun, 
pronoun, or adverb, on which it depends ; — as, " We should 
strive to do good." " It is pleasant to view the wonders of 
God." " We have a strong desire to improve." 

95. The infinitive sometimes depends upon a whole sen- 
tence ; — as, " Henry went on a voyage to sea, to improve his 
health." 

96. The infinitive sometimes depends upon a preposition; 
— as, " The workmen were about to depart." 

97. The infinitive is sometimes used absolutely ; — as, u To 
tell the truth, I did it." 

98. A verb in the infinitive is used without its sign to, after 
the verbs bid, dare, let, see, feel, make, need, and hear; — as, 
" Bid him depart." " He dare not do it." " Let me go home." 

99. The infinitive is sometimes used without its sign to, 
after help, behold, perceive, know, and have ; — as, u Help me 



64 GRAMMATIC GUIDE. 

prepare for my departure." " Would you have me disregard 
my warmest friends." 

100. The infinitive may be the subject or object of a verb. 
(See Rules 1, 43, and Rules 4, 52.) 

Rule XII. — Participles. 

101. Participles refer to nouns or pronouns to modify them. 

102. Participles are often used as nouns ; — as, " Heard you 
the howling of the blast ?" 

103. Participles sometimes perform, at the same time, the 
office of a noun and verb ; — as, " I could not refrain from speak- 
ing the truth." As a noun it is the object of relation expressed 
by from, and as a verb governs truth. 

104. Participles are often used absolutely ; — as, " This con- 
duct, considering from whom it came, is unworthy of my notice." 

105. Participles, except in the cases mentioned above, per- 
form precisely the same office as adjectives, and should be dis- 
posed of in the same manner ; — as, 

' ; Thy tones come pouring on my leaping heart, 
And my stirred spirit hears thee with a start, 
As boyhood's old remembered shout." 
Pouring modifies tones ; leaping modifies heart ; stirrd modi- 
fies spirit ; and remembered modifies shout. 

u Oil ! stay thy tears ! for they are blest 
Whose days are past ; whose toil is done." 
Blest is a participle* modifying they ; past modifies days; and 
done modifies toil. " By our passions and appetites we are 
placed on a level with the herds of the forest." " The ambitious 
are always seeking to aggrandize themselves." 

106. These have been, and still are considered verbs in the 
passive voice, and the progressive form of the active voice. In 
the example, " we are placed," are is a principal verb, in the 
indicative mode, present tense of the verb to be ; and placed, 
the prior-present participle of the verb to place, referring to we 
which it modifies. See Introduction. 

Rule XIII. — Adverbs. 

107. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs; 
— as, " Our moments glide rapidly away." " He was a very 
good man." ; ' The bird Hew very rapidly." 

108. Adverbs of time and place, and some others, seem to 
connect sentences ; — as, " He had not arrived when I departed." 

109. Some adverbs modify prepositions ; — as, " He sailed 
nearly round the island." 

110. Adverbs sometimes supply the place of nouns; — as, 
" Till then, who knew the force of those dire arms ?" 

111. The adverb there is often used without any reference 



CONJUNCTIONS. 65 

to place ; — as, " There is an hour of sweet repose." When 
thus employed it is called an expletive. 

112. Several adverbs joined together form an adverbial 
phrase. 



113. The Definition is all that is necessary in dis- 
posing of Prepositions and Conjunctions ; therefore 
rules are not required. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

114. Conjunctions connect words or sentences. 

115. Two or more words are sometimes used to- 
gether as a compound conjunction ; — as, " Happiness, 
as well as virtue, consists in mediocrity." 

116. Some conjunctions are composed of two cor- 
responding words either expressed or understood ; 
Though, although — yet, still, nevertheless ; — as, " Though 
rich, yet became he poor/' " Though powerful, still he 
was meek/' " Though he is now rich, he may never- 
theless become poor." 

Both — and ; — as, " He honored both his father and 
his mother." 

Either — or ; — as, " I will either come for it myself, 
or send immediately." " Either the one or the other." 

Whether — or ; — as, " Whether he will go to-day, or 
to-morrow, I cannot tell." 

Neither — nor ; — as, " Neither life nor death shall 
separate us." 

As — as ; — as, " She was as amiable as her sister." 

As — so ; — as, " As falleth the lofty pine before the 
tempest, so shall ye fall before the powerful arm of 
death." 

So — as ;— as, " Speak distinctly, so as to be heard 
by all." 



66 GRAMMATIC GUIDE. 

117. — Or — or, is frequently used by poets instead of 
either — or ; — as, 

" Virtue the lowest place at table took, 
Or served, or was shut out." 

" He riches gave, he intellectual strength, 
To few, and therefore none commands to be 
Or rich or learned." 

118. Nor — nor, is frequently used instead of neither 
— nor ; — as, 

" What, nor wind, 

Nor wave, nor shock of falling years could move." 

" Which — nor the blast'" 

Of the bold huntsman's horn, nor aught, that stirs 
The spirit to its bent, might drive away." 

119. The conjunction or sometimes connects words 
which signify the same thing ; — as, " The use of alco- 
holic drinks, as a beverage, produces a sort of insanity 
or drunkenness." 

120. The word as has several uses, a few of which 
follow. 

121. It is used with a preposition, forming a com- 
pound connective ; — as, " There arose a dispute as to 
the course which they should take." " I know T not 
what course others may take, but, as for me, give me 
liberty, or give me death." 

122. It is used to connect nouns and pronouns which 
are in apposition ; — as, " We venture to deny that the 
Germans are defective in taste ; even as a nation, as 
a public, taking one thing with another, we imagine 
they may stand comparison with any of their neigh- 
bors ; as writers, as critics, they may decidedly court it." 

123. It is used to connect adjectives and participles 



CONJUNCTIONS. 67 

with their nouns; — as, "Nay! to the genuine poet, 
they deny even the privilege of regarding what so many 
cherish, under the title of fame, as the best and highest 
of all." " The result has much importance as bearing 
upon American slavery." 

124. The conjunctions if though, unless, whether, 
and except, when they precede a verb in the future 
tense, do not require it to have its usual signs ; — as, 
" If he say so, it is well ;" that is, " If he (shall) say so, 
it is well." " Though he slay me, yet will I trust in 
him ;" i. e. " Though he (should) slay me, yet will 1 
trust in him." " Except ye repent, ye must all likewise 
perish ;" i. e. " Except ye (shall) repent, ye must all 
likewise perish." 

125. The word that is commonly classed among 
conjunctions, when used in such a manner as in the 
following sentences. " That all must die is certain." 
" The preacher cautions his hearers against complain- 
ing that the dispensations of Providence are too severe." 
" This unfortunate man was sustained in his afflictions 
by believing that happiness awaited him in another 
world." In the first example given, " That all must die 
is certain," here it is evident that signifies the same 
thing in the sentence as "all must die," and of course 
will be in apposition with the clause. If we transpose 
the sentence, and place that before its verb, we have 
" All must die, that is certain." So in the second sen- 
tence ; if we transpose it, we shall have, " The dispen- 
sations of Providence are too severe, the preacher 
cautions his hearers against complaining (on) that (ac- 
count) ." In the last sentence, by transposition, we have, 
" Happiness awaited him in a better world, this unfor- 
tunate man was sustained in his affliction by believing 
that." 



68 GRAMMATIC GUIDE. 



PREPOSITIONS. 



126. Prepositions connect words and show the re- 
lation between them. 

127. Both terms of the relation should always be 
given in parsing a preposition. The object of it is 
always one of its terms ; the other may be either a 
noun, verb, or adjective ; — as, " We should not glory 
in the extent of our own knowledge." " We should 
ever be upright in our dealings." 

128. The preposition is often separated from the 
relative which it governs ; — as, " Whom wilt thou listen 
to ?" i. e. " To whom wilt thou listen T 9 

129. Two or more words are sometimes used 
together as a compound preposition ; — as, " He came 
from among the hills." 

130. The preposition is frequently understood after 
the adverbs like, unlike, near, or nigh ; — as, " Did he 
look like (to or unto) his father, or his mother ?" 



ORDER OF PARSING. 

In parsing, the reason for every step should be given 
by the learner, as he proceeds, until he becomes familiar 
with the definitions and reasons. It would be well to 
give them by their number ; the same should be done 
in regard to rules. 

/. Names. II. Pronouns. 



A Noun. 


A Pronoun. 


Com. or Prop. 


Stands for. 


Gender. 


Gender. 


Number. 


Number. 


Case. 


Person. 


Government. 


Case. 


Rule. 


Government- 


, 


Rule. 



EXAMPLE IN PARSING. 



69 



III. Adjectives, 

An Adjective. 

Kind of Adjective. 

Degree. 

Modifies. 

Rule. 

IV. Verbs. 

A Verb. 

Root. 

Prin. parts. 

Kind of Verb. 

Mode. 

Tense. 

Number. 

Person. 

Agreement. 

Rule. 



V. Adverbs. 

An Adverb. 

Modifies. 

Rule. 

VI. Prepositions. 

A Preposition. 

Connecting. 

The Antecedent term 

The subsequent term. 

Definition. 

VII. Conjunctions. 

Conjunction. 

Connecting. 

Definition. 



with. 



EXAMPLE IN PARSING. 

It would be well for the learner to finish the follow- 
ing piece of poetry, either upon his slate, or a piece of 
paper, giving the definitions, reasons, and rules, for the 
inspection of the teacher at the time of recitation. 
This piece is given, however, that the pupil may become 
familiar with the definitions. 

Oh ! sunny is the morning hour 

Of life's fast fleeting day, 
And lovely every fragrant flower 

That blooms along its way. — 
And well my spirit loves to fly 

On Mem'ry's pinion bright, 
Back to my girlhood's glowing sky, 

And to its pure delight ! 

I'm going now — and if you please 

Kind reader ! come with me — 
The way is short and at our ease, 

We'll chat with girlish glee. 



70 GRAMMATIC GUIDE. 

Here flows my own, my singing brook, 

And it shall be our guide 
Along the vale ; — but listen ! look ! 

Those ruddy lads beside 
Its flowery brink — with hook and line. 

And string of shining trout; 
Are they not fair, those brothers mine ? 

Are they not brave and stout ? 

One of them counts two summers more 

Than I, his fav'rite sis — 
The other, tho' he's tall, I'm sure 

Has seen two summers less. 
Yes, yes ! they see me, and I hear 

Their welcome, loud and free — 
They beckon ! — well, I'll soon be there, 

Their finny spoils to see. 
Oh, let me lay my flowers aside 

Upon the shining sands, 
And clap, in all my girlish pride, 

My plump and sun-brown hands ! 

And now away ! my brothers bold 

And generous of heart, 
As ever was brave knight of old !— 

We'll to our father's cot, 
And ye will bear your precious load, 

And I my flowers so sweet, 
Right merrily along the road, 

Our mother's smile to meet. 
There ! there amid the opening trees, 

Our little cot I spy, 
And list ! a song upon the breeze — 

'Tis baby's lullaby. 

Oh haste ! I've been so long away 

I fain would be at home, 
For long has been the summer day, 

Since I went forth to roam. 
We're standing by our mother's knee — 

Oh ! mark her gentle smile ! 
How sweetly and how lovingly 

It rests on us the while. 
Oh ! now she takes my boquet bright— 

I'm bl st ; I'm greatly blest — 
With what a load of fond delight 

My beating heart is press'd ! 



EXAMPLE IN PARSING. 71 

Oh ! — a voice of nature, expressive of emotion. 

sunny — a modifier of the noun hour : ' sunny hour. 5 Rule 7. 

is — an irregular intransitive verb ; a verb, because it expresses 
an assertion; irregular, because it does not form its past 
tense and prior-present participle by the addition of d or ed 
to the present ; — am, was, been ; intransitive, because it can 
have no object ; in the indicative mode, because it declares ; 
present tense, because it denotes present time; third person 
singular, to agree with its subject hour: 'hour is.' Rule 8. 

the — a modifier of the noun hour: 'the hour.' 7. 

morning — a modifier of the noun hour : ' morning hour.' 7. 

hour : — a noun, common, singular ; a noun, because it is a 
name; common, because it is a general name; singular num- 
ber, because it denotes but one ; in the nominative case, the 
subject of the verb is : ' hour is.' 1. 

of— a preposition, connecting hour and day : ' hour of day.' 

Part II. Chap. I. 16. 
life's — a modifier of the noun day : ' Life's day.' 7. 
fast — an adverb, modifying fleeting: ' fast fleeting.' 13. 
fleeting — a modifier of the noun day : ; fleeting day.' 7. 
day — a noun, common, singular ; in the objective case, the 

object of relation expressed by the preposition of by which 

it is governed : ' of day.' 

and — a conjunction, connecting the simple sentences. Part II. 
Chap. I. 17. 

lovely — a modifier of the noun flower : ' lovely flower.' 7. 

every — a distributive modifier of the noun flower: ' every 
flower.' 7. 

fragrant — a modifier of the noun flower : ' fragrant flower.' 7. 

flower — the same as the noun hour. 

that — a relative pronoun, referring to flower for its antecedent, 
and the subject of the verb blooms: ' that blooms.' Rule 6, 1, 

blooms— & verb, regular, intransitive ; a verb, because it express- 
es an assertion; regular, because it forms its past tense and 
prior-present participle by the addition of d or ed to the 
present; intransitive, because it can have no object; in the 
indicative mode, because it declares ; present tense, because 
it denotes present time ; third, singular, to agree with its' 
subject that: ' that blooms.' 8. 

along — a preposition, connecting blooms and way : ' blooms 
along way.' Part II. Chap. I. 16. 

its — a possessive pronominal adjective; possessive, because it 
denotes possession ; pronominal, because it partakes of the 



72 GRAMMATIC GUIDE. 

nature of a pronoun ; adjective or modifier, because it modi- 
fies ; modifies the noun way : ' its way.' 7. 

way — a noun, common, singular, in the objective case, the ob- 
ject of relation expressed by the preposition along, by which 
it is governed : ' along way. 5 4. 

and — a conjunction, continuing the sentence. 

well — a modifier of the verb loves : ' loves well.' 13. 

my — a possessive pronominal adjective or modifier of the noun 
spirit : ' my spirit.' 7. 

spirit — a noun, common, singular ; in the nominative case, the 
subject of the verb loves : ' spirit loves.' 1. 

loves — a regular, transitive verb ; in the indicative mode, pres- 
ent tense; third, singular, to agree with its subject spirit: 
6 spirit loves.' 8. 

io fly — an irregular, intransitive verb ; in the infinitive mode, 
present tense, the object of the verb loves: ' loves to fly.' 
Part III. 100. 

on — a preposition, connecting to fly and pinion : { to fly on pin- 
ion.' Part II. Chap. I. 16. 

Memory's — a modifier of the noun pinion: i Mem'ry's pinion.' 7 

pinion — a noun, common, singuiar; in the objective case, the 

object of relation expressed by the preposition on, by which 

it is governed : ' on pinion.' 4. 
bright — a modifier of the noun pinion: l bright pinion.' 7. 
Back — a modifier of the verb to fly : l to fly back.' 13. 
to — a preposition, connecting to fly and sky : ' to fly to sky.' 
my — a modifier of the adjective girlhood's: i my girlhood's.' 

Part III. 74. 
girlhood's*— -a modifier of the noun sky : l girlhood's sky.' 7. 
glowing — a modifier of the noun sky : ' glowing sky.' 7. 

sky — a noun, common, singular; in the objective case; the 
object of relation expressed by the preposition to, by which 
it is governed : ' to sky.' 4. 

and — a conjunction, continuing the sentence. 

to — a preposition, connecting to fly and delight : l to fly to de- 
light' Part II. Chap. I. 16. 

its — a possessive pronominal adjective or modifier of the noun 
delight: 'its delight.' 7. 

pare — a modifier of the noun delight : c pure delight.' 7. - 

delight — a noun, common, singular ; in the objective case ; the 

object of the preposition to by which it is governed: 'to 

delight.' 4. 



WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH. 73 

WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH. 

131. That is a relative pronoun when who or which 
can be placed in its stead ; — as, " He is the man that 
(who) told me." 

132. That is a modifier or adjective, when it modi- 
fies a noun ; — as, " That man is happy.' 5 

133. As is a relative pronoun, when it follows 
many, such, or same; — as, "Such as hear will obey." 

134. As is a conjunction, in all cases except when 
it is a pronoun ; — as, " He did as he was required." 

135. Either is a conjunction, when it corresponds 
to or ; — as, " Either the one or the other." 

136. Either is an adjective, when it signifies "one 
of two ;" — as, " Will either of them go ?" 

137. Both is a conjunction, when it corresponds to 
and ; — as, " Both James and Henry w r ent." 

138. Both is an adjective, when it signifies the 
two ; — as, " Give me both books." 

139. Yet is a conjunction, when it follows though; — 
as, " Though he struck me, yet I am not angry." 

140. Yet is an adverb, when it is not a conjunc- 
tion ; — as, " I have not yet learned my lesson." 

141. For is a conjunction when used in the sense 
of because ; — as, " He respected him, for he had ne^er 
wronged him." 

142. For is a preposition, in all cases when not a 
conjunction ; — as, " He bought it for me." 

143. What is a compound relative, when it stands 
for " that which ;" — as, " I received what (that which) 
he sent me." 

144. What is a simple relative, when used in ask- 
ing a question ; — as, " What do you wish ?" 

5 



74 GRAMMATIC GUIDE, 

145. What is a modifier, when it is not a relative ; 
— as, "I cannot tell in what direction he went/ 5 

146. Much is a noun, when it stands for quantity ; — 
as, " Where much is given, much will be required." 

147. Much is an adjective or modifier, when it 
modifies a noun ; — as, " Much learning maketh thee 
mad." 

148. Much is an adverb, when it performs the office 
of the adverb ; — as, " He is much happier than I am." 

149. More is a noun, when it implies quantity ; — 
as, " The more we have, the more we want." 

150. More and most are modifiers of nouns, when 
joined with them ; — as, " I have more money than I 
shall use at present," " Most men are liable to be 
deceived." 

151. More and most are modifiers of adjectives 
when joined with them ;— as, " He is more frugal 
than many are." " He is the most industrious man I 
ever saw." 



PUNCTUATION. 

152. Punctuation is the dividing of written com- 
position, by points or stops, into such sentences, or parts 
of sentences, as the sense intended to be conveyed and 
the grammatical construction require. 

153. The following are the principal points : the 
Comma (. ), the Semicolon ( ; ), the Colon ( : ) ; the Period 
( . ), the Dash ( — ), the Point of Interrogation ( ? ), and 
the Point of Exclamation ( ! ). 

154. The Comma requires the shortest pause; the 
Semicolon, a longer pause than the Comma ; the Colon, 



PUNCTUATION. 75 

a longer than the Semicolon ; and the Period, a full 
stop. 

155. The Point of Interrogation and the Point of 
Exclamation may take the place of either of these 
pauses, in which case, they require the same length of 
time, as the pause for which they stand. 

156. The precise quantity or duration of each pause 
depends entirely upon the composition ; some pieces 
require much longer intervals than others ; — as, for 
instance, 

"Morn came again, 

But the young lamb was dead. 
Yet the poor mother's fond distress, 

Its every art had tried. 
To shield, with sleepless tenderness, 

The weak one at her side ;" 

in which the duration of pause is greater than in the 
following ; 

" Sisters ! hence, with spurs of speed ! 
Each her thundering falchion wield ; 
Each bestride her sable steed ; 
Hurry ! hurry to the field !" 

157. The idea conveyed by the passage frequently 
requires a pause in reading, where custom will not 
warrant the insertion of a comma, in writing ; — as, 
" Time | once passed | never returns." " Silver | and 
gold | have I none." 

" Some | place the bliss | in action, some in ease : 
Those | call it pleasure, and contentment | these." 

158. Points are sometimes inserted barely for the 
purpose of indicating the syntactical construction, and 
do not require a suspension of the voice in reading ; — 
as, " I answered — yes, sir." 



76 GRAMMATIC GUIDE. 



Com 



ma. 



159. The comma usually separates parts of a sen- 
tence, which, though closely connected in sense and 
construction, require a pause between them. 

160. Rule I. When the subject of a sentence con- 
sists of a single nominative, with several modifiers, a 
comma should be inserted before the verb ; — as, " The 
true enjoyments of a reasonable being, do not consist 
in unbounded indulgences/' " The assumption that 
the cause of Christianity is declining, is gratuitous/* 

161. Rule II. When the connection of the different 
parts of a simple sentence, is broken by an interrupting 
clause, a comma should be placed both before, and after 
the clause ; — as, " Such a subject, we are persuaded, 
has very great capabilities/' " All powerful and pathetic 
poetry, it is obvious, abounds in images of distress/' 
Slight interruptions do not require commas. 

162. Rule III. When several nouns, verbs, adjec- 
tives, participles, or adverbs, are found in the same 
construction, they are usually separated by commas ; — 
as, " Birth, rank, wealth, learning, are advantages of 
slight value, if unaccompanied by personal worth/' 
" Education, regarding man as a rational, accountable, 
and immortal being, elevates, expands, and enriches his 
mind; cultivates the best affections of his heart." 

" Embracing all, supporting, ruling o'er, 
Being whom we call God, and know no more." 

" I speak the truth openly, boldly, baldly, unequivo- 
cally." 

163. Rule IV. When two nouns, verbs, adjectives, 
participles, or adverbs, are found in the same construc- 
tion unconnected by a conjunction, they are separated 



PUNCTUATION. 77 

by a comma, but when intimately connected, the com- 
ma is omitted ; — as, " Creatures of imitation and sym- 
pathy, as we are, we look around us for support and 
comfort even in our virtues." "Education smooths 
and polishes the roughnesses of our nature." " True 
merit is modest and retiring'' " By being flattered and 
admired our vanity is excited." " He studies systema- 
tically and attentively." 

164. Rule V. When the subject of a sentence 
consists of two nominatives, with their modifiers, a com- 
ma should be placed between them ; — as, " Attention to 
his business, and promptness in his dealings, command- 
ed the respect of all." 

165. Rule VI. When successive words are joined 
in pairs, each pair should be separated from the others, 
by a comma ; — as, " The old and the young, the high 
and the low, the rich and the poor, are alike exposed 
to the shafts of death." 

166. Rule VII. When the different members of a 
compound sentence, contain distinct propositions, they 
are separated by commas ; — as, " The sky was clear, 
and the air was fresh and balmy." 

167. Rule VIII. When an address is made, the 
person or thing addressed is separated by a comma, from 
the subject of the address ; — as, " Sir, I hope I know 
my duty better." " Peace, cousin, say no more." 
" Brother, the king hath made your nephew mad." 

168. Rule IX. When the simple members of a sen- 
tence, are connected by comparatives, they are separated 
by a Comma; — as, "As the hart panteth after the 
water brooks, so doth my soul pant after thee." 

169. Rule X. When one or more words, except an 
adverb, come between the relative and its antecedent, 



78 GRAMMATIC GUIDE. 

the former should be preceded by a comma ; — as, 
"Much truth had been assented to in Time, which 
never, till this day, had made a due impression on the 
heart/' 

170. Rule XL When the intransitive verb to be is 
followed by another verb in the infinitive, which might 
be considered its subject, the former should be sepa- 
rated from the latter, by a comma ; — as, " The object 
of our present visit is, to see the falls, and to call upon 
our friends." 

171. Rule XII. When a word or phrase is omitted 
in a sentence, a comma should be inserted in its place ; 
— as, "As a companion, he was severe and satirical; 
as a friend, captious and dangerous." 

172. Rule XIII. When either of two words in ap- 
position is accompanied by modifiers, the latter, with 
its modifiers, should be separated from the rest of the 
sentence by commas ; — as, 

"Ye winds, ye unseen currents of the air, 
Softly ye played a few brief hours ago." 

173. Rule XIV. When a word or phrase is re- 
peated for the sake of emphasis, a comma should be 
inserted before and after it ; — as, 

" That silent moon, that silent moon, 
Careering now through cloudless sky." 



Semicolon. 

174. The semicolon is used to denote a pause longer 
than that represented by a comma. 

175. Rule I. When a member of a sentence, con- 
taining a complete proposition, is followed by an ex. 
planatory clause, or one which expresses an inference, 
or contrast, the semicolon should be placed between 



PUNCTUATION. 79 

them ; — as, " Man is strong ; but his heart is not ada- 
mant. He delights in enterprise and action ; but, to 
sustain him, he needs a tranquil mind, and a whole 
heart." 

176. Rule II. When several successive members 
of a sentence have a common connection with another 
clause following or preceding it, they are separated by 
a semicolon ; — as, 

" But whether I, of person speak, or place ; 
Event or action ; moral or divine ; 
Or things unknown compared with things unknown," etc. 

177. Several successive short sentences, having no 
common connection or dependence, are sometimes sepa- 
rated by semicolons ; — as, 

" Satan raged loose ; Sin had her will ; and Death 
Enough ; blood trod upon the heels of blood; 
Revenge, in desperate mood, at midnight met 
Revenge; war brayed at war; deceit deceived 
Deceit ; lie cheated lie ; and treachery] 
Mined under treachery; and perjury 
Swore back on perjury." 



Colon. 



178. The colon is used to divide a sentence into 
two or more parts, less intimately connected than 
those separated by a semicolon. 

179. Rule I. When a member of a sentence is 
complete in itself, but is followed by some further re- 
mark or illustration, the colon is inserted ; — as, " Your 
rights are invaded : confidence in negotiation is vain : 
there is, therefore, no alternative but force. You are 



80 GRAMMATIC GUIDE, 

exposed to imminent present danger : you have the 
prospect of great future advantage : you are justified 
by the clearest principles of right : you are urged by 
the strongest motives of policy : you are commanded 
by every sentiment of national dignity/ 3 

180. Rule II. When a sentence contains several 
perfect members, separated from each other by semi- 
colons, a colon should be placed before the last in 
order to mark the concluding sentiment; — as, "A di- 
vine legislator, uttering his voice from heaven ; an 
Almighty Governor, stretching forth his arm to punish 
or reward ; informing us of perpetual rest prepared 
hereafter for the righteous, and of indignation and 
wrath awaiting the wicked : these are the considera- 
tions which overawe the world, which support integ- 
rity and check guilt. " 

Period. 

181. Rule I. A period is placed at the end of a 
sentence, to denote its completion ; — as, " Sagacious 
enterprise is there." 

182. Rule II. A period must be used after all ab- 
breviated words ;— as, " A. B." "A. D." "A, M." 



Dash. 

183. The dash is used where the sentence has been 
abruptly broken off; where there is a sudden transi- 
tion ; or where a significant pause is required ; — as, 

"A. "I think, and, what is more important perhaps, 
those with whom I act, think that course advisable 
and I— " 



PUNCTUATION. 81 

"B. 'Advisable! Sir, it is destructive — it is the 
beginning of all evil — the very germ of ruin — " 

" Is nothing left of his victories now 

But legions broken — a sword in rust — 
A crown that cumbers a dotard's brow — 
A name and a requiem — dust to dust?" 

" I stooped and wrote upon the sand 
My name — the year — the day." 

184. When the dash accompanies another pause, 
it denotes a greater duration of time than the pause 
does when used alone ; — as, 

" Take then thy station — act thy proper part ;— 
A Savior's mercy seek, — his will perform." 



Point of Interrogation. 

185. The point of interrogation is used at the close 
of an interrogative sentence ; — as, 

" Can a sister be forgotten?" 

" Do memories perish when friends are severed ?" 

" Sat not around his table sons and daughters ? 
Was not his ear with music pleased ? his eye, 
With light? his nostrils, with perfumes ? his lips, 
With pleasant relishes ?" 



Point of Exclamation. 

186. Expressions of sudden emotion, surprise, joy, 
grief, etc., also addresses, or invocations, are followed 
by the point of exclamation ; — as, 

" God of my fathers ! holy, just, and good ! 
My God ! my Father ! my unfading hope ! 

5* 



82 GRAMMATIC GUIDE. 

Jehovah ! let the incense of thy praise, 

Accepted, burn before thy mercy seat, 

And in thy presence burn both night and day." 



Parenthesis. 

187. The parenthesis is a clause or remark, intro- 
duced into the body of a sentence, for the purpose of 
explaining or qualifying the principal sentence : it is 
introduced in such a manner as not to injure the con- 
struction. 

188. The parenthesis is generally included in curved 
lines ; thus, ( ). It generally requires a moderate de- 
pression of the voice ; — as, 

" Friendship's the wine of life ; but friendship new 
(Not such was his) is neither strong nor pure." 

" Soon our whole term for wisdom is expired, 
(Thou know'st she calls no council in the grave,) 
And everlasting fool is writ in fire. 
Or real wisdom wafts us to the skies." 



The Apostrophe. 

189. The apostrophe ( ' ) shows that a word or 
words are abbreviated or shortened ; and is placed 
directly over where the letter or letters are omitted ; — as, 

" As yet I'll (I will) neither triumph nor despair." 

" 'Tis (it is) immortality your nature solves." 

" Thus seal'd (sealed) by truth th' (the) authentic record 
runs." 

190. When a noun is employed to modify another 
noun, the apostrophe is used : — as, 



PUNCTUATION. 83 

" And still those grey old towers were there, 
The lofty trees above, 
Where he had shown a lover's care, 
And won — a sister's love." 

" And childhood's happy home is there, 

And childhood's free and blithesome hours; 
Again we prove a mother's love, 
'Neath young life's radiant morning bowers." 

In these cases e or i is omitted. 

191. Sometimes, when several words come to- 
gether, implying common possession, the apostrophe 
and letter s are only annexed to the last; — as, "Charles 
and Henry's books/' i. e. " (Charles and Henry) 's 
books." 



The Hyphen, 

192. The hyphen ( - ) is used to connect compound 
words, and also, when a part of a word is at the end 
of one line, and the other part at the beginning of the 
next ; — as, 

" The victory was never-ending bliss." 

" Education is indeed a companion which no misfor- 
tune can depress, no clime destroy, no despotism en- 
slave." 



The Dieresis. 

193. The Dieresis is (") placed over one of two 
vowels to show that they do not form a diphthong; — as 

" Creator, yes ! Thy wisdom and Thy word 
Created me." 

194. The Acute Accent ( ' ) is used to denote a short 
syllable, also the rising inflection of the voice. 



84 GRAMMATIC GUIDE, 

195. The Grave Accent ( * ) is used to denote a 
long syllable, also, the falling inflection. 

196. The Breve (~) shows that the syllable, over 
which it is placed, is short. 

197. The Macron ( " ) shows that the syllable, over 
which it is placed, is long. 

198. The Caret ( A ) shows that some letter, word, 
or words, have been omitted, which are placed over 
the line. 

199. The Ellipsis ( ) denotes the intentional 

omission of some letters or words. 

r is used to unite a triplet, or several 

200. The Brace < terms, to something to which they 

( are related* 

201. The Section {§) marks the smallest division 
of a chapter. 

202. The Paragraph ( U ) denotes the beginning of 
a new subject. Its use is chiefly confined to the Old 
and New Testaments. 

203. The Quotation ( " " ) is used to mark the words 
or clauses taken from another author. 

204. The Hand ( [Cf 3 ) is used to call particular 
attention to some passage or remark. 

205. The Asterisk ( * ), the Obelisk ( f ), the Double 
Dagger (%), and the Parallels ( || ), letters of the alpha- 
bet and figures, are used to refer to the bottom of the page. 



USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 

206. All proper names should begin with capital 
letters. 

207. All adjectives derived from proper names should 
begin with capital letters. 



USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 85 

208. The first word of a quotation, introduced after 
a colon, should begin with a capital letter. The first 
word of an example may begin with a capital ; — as, 
" Know thyself." 

209. The first word after a period, and, if the two sen- 
tences are entirely independent, after a point of inter- 
rogation or exclamation, should begin with a capital. 

210. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, 
note, or any other piece of writing, should begin with 
a capital. 

211. The pronoun /, and the voice of nature O, are 
written in capitals. 



PART IV. 



PROSODY. 

1. Prosody treats of the pronunciation of words, 
and the poetical construction of sentences. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

2. Pronunciation includes Accent, Quantity, Em- 
phasis, Tone, and Pause. 

3. Accent is a stress laid on one or more syllables of 
a word. 

4. Accent is either primary or secondary. 

5. The primary accent is placed over that syllable 
of a word which has the greatest stress of voice. 

6. The secondary accent is placed over another 
syllable beside that which has the primary accent. 

7. The quantity of a syllable is the relative time 
occupied in pronouncing it. 

8. A vowel or syllable is long, when the accent is 
on the vowel, which occasions it to be slowly joined 
in pronunciation with the following letters. 

9. A syllable is short, when the accent is on the 
consonant, which occasions the vowel to be quickly 
joined in pronunciation with the following letters. 

10. A syllable may be long, or short. 

11. A long syllable generally requires nearly double 



PRONUNCIATION. 87 

the time of a short one in pronouncing it ; mate, note, 
are twice as long as not, mat. 

12. Emphasis is a stronger and fuller sound of 
voice, by which we distinguish some word or words 
from others in the same sentence. 

13. It is used to make those words which are most 
important in sense, most prominent to the ear of the 
hearer. 

14. No precise rules can be given to regulate the 
application of Emphasis. In order to apply it correctly 
the reader should thoroughly understand the exact im- 
port of what he reads. 

15. Tone is that modulation of voice, depending 
upon the speaker's feelings, which is employed in ex- 
pressing our sentiments. 

16. A pause is a short suspension of the voice in 
speaking or reading. 

17. In poetry there are two pauses ; — the ccesicral, 
and the final. 

18. The ccesura is introduced into a line for the 
purpose of making the versification more melodious. 

" The expecting crowds | in still attention hung 
To hear the wisdom | of kis heavenly tongue. 
Then deeply thoughtful | pausing ere he spoke, 
His silence thus | the prudent hero broke." 

" But there's a joy | in some lone hours, 
From friends | and home away, 
When come in dreams | the birds and flowers 
That cheered | my early day." 

19. The final pause occurs at the end of a line. 



88 GRAMMATIC GUIDE. 

VERSIFICATION. 

20. Versification is a measured arrangement of 
words, in which the accent recurs at certain regular 
intervals. 

21. There are two kinds of verse; — rhyme, and 
blank verse. 

22. Rhyme is the correspondence of the last sound 
in one line to the last sound in another ; — as, 

" And freedom hallows with her tread 
The silent cities of the deadP 

23. Blank Verse is without rhyme ; — as, 

" Nearer the stranger came, and bending o'er 
The leper's prostrate form pronounced his name, 
: Helon !' The voice was like the master-tone 
Of a rich instrument — most strangely sweet — ; 
And the dull pulses of disease awoke, 
And, for a moment, beat beneath the hot 
And leprous scales with a restoring thrill. 
1 Helon ! arise !' and he forgot his curse, 
And rose and stood before him." 

24. Each line in blank verse contains ten syllables. 

25. Rhymed verse may consist of any number of 
syllables. 

26. A Foot is a certain number of syllables con- 
nected together ; — as, 

" The white | sail woos | the fra | grant air." 

27. All feet, in poetry, are composed of either two, 
or three syllables, and are reduced to eight kinds ; four 
of two, and four of three syllables. 

Dissyllable. Trisyllable. 

An Iambus w " An Amphibrach * * I ' 

A Trochee " " A Tribrach 

A Spondee " " A Dactyl 

A Pyrrhic " " An Anapest 



VERSIFICATION. 89 

28. An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and 
the last accented. 

29. A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and 
the last unaccented. 

30. A Spondee has both syllables accented. 

31. A Pyrrhic has both syllables unaccented. 

32. An Amphibrach has the first and last syllables 
unaccented, and the middle accented. 

33. A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented. 

34. A DaAyl has the first syllable accented, and 
the second and third, unaccented. 

35. An Anapest has the first and second unac- 
cented, and the last accented. 

36. The Iambus, Trochee, and Anapest, are the 
principal feet used in English poetry. They are termed 
primary feet. 

37. The Spondee, Pyrrhic, Amphibrach, Tribrach, 
and Dactyl, are called secondary feet. 

38. A Verse is a line of poetry consisting of a cer- 
tain number of long and short syllables. 

39. A Couplet consists of two verses making com- 
plete sense ; — as, 

" The orchard — and the yellow-mantled fields, 
Each in its turn some dear remembrance yields." 

40. A Triplet consists of three verses which 
rhyme together ; — as, 

" And oft, when harshly she reproved, I wept, 
To my lone corner, broken-hearted, crept, 
And thought of tender home where anger never kept." 

41. Alliteration is the frequent recurrence of the 
same letter i — as, 

" The Zord/y /ion /eaves his lonely Zair." 



90 GRAMMATIC GUIDE. 

42. A Stanza is a combination of several verses 
forming a regular division of a poem. 

43. Scanning is the resolving of verses into the 
several feet of which they are composed. 

IAMBIC VERSE. 

44. Iambic Verse is composed of Iambuses. It has 
every second, fourth, and other even syllable accented. 

45. The shortest form of Iambic verse, is composed 
of one Iambus and an additional syllable ;— as, 

"Admlr | ing 
Desir | ing." 

46. The next form consists of two Iambuses, and 

is seldom used, only when introduced into stanzas ; 

• — as, 

" With thee | we rise. 
With thee | we reign." 

This form sometimes takes an additional syllable ; 
—as, 

ci High up the mount | ain, 
Beside a fount | ain." 

47. The third form consists of three Iambuses, 
and also takes an additional syllable ;— -as, 

" When oth | er friends | are round | thee,] 

And oth | er hearts | are thine ; 
When oth | er bays | have crown'd | thee, 

More fresh | and green | than mine." 

48. The fourth form consists of four Iambuses; 

— as, 

" Deceive | no more | thyself | and me, 
Deceive | not bet | ter hearts | than mine ; 

Ah ! shouldst | thou, whlth | er wouldst | thou flee, 
From wo | like ours, | from shame | like thine." 



VERSIFICATION. 91 

49. This form also sometimes takes an additional 

unaccented syllable ; — as, 

il Or if | it be | thy will | and pleas | ure 
Direct | my plough | to find | a treas | ure." 

50. The fifth form, or Heroic measure, consists of 
five Iambuses ; — 

" Mourn not | for her ! | for what | hath life | to give 
That should | detain | her rea | dy splr | it here ? 
Think'st thou | that It | were worth | a wish | to live 
Could wish | es hold | her from | her prop | er sphere ?" 

51. "A pal | ace this | befit | ting king | ly pride: 

Will ho | liness | my friend | in pal | ace pomp | 
abide V\ 

The last verse is called an Alexandrine ; it con- 
sists of twelve syllables or six Iambic feet. We find 
it frequently in heroic verse, especially at the close of 
a passage. 

Trochaic Verse. 

52. Trochaic Verse is composed of Trochaic feet. 

53. The shortest Trochaic verse consists of one 

Trochaic foot, and an additional syllable ; — as, 

" Tumult | cease, 
Sink to | peace." 

54. Two Trochees ; — as, 

" Wishes | rising. 

Thoughts sur | prising, 
Pleasures | courting, 

Charms trans | porting I" .; 

55. Third form : three Trochees ;— as, 

" Whereso | e'er thy | lot com | mand, 

Brother, | pilgrim, | stranger, 
God is | ever | near at | hand, 

Golden | shield from | danger." 



92 GRAMMATIC GUIDE. 

56. Fourth form : four Trochees ; — as, 

t: Round us — roars the | tempest | louder." 

Anapestic Verse. 

57. Anapestic Verse has accent on every third syl- 
lable ; — as, 

u At the si | lence of twi | light's contem | plative hour, 

I have mused | in a sor | rowful mood. 
On the wind- | shaken weeds | that erabo | som the bower 

Where the home | of my fore | lathers stood. 

58. Iambic, Trochaic, and Anapestic feet, are often 
found in the same verse ; — as, 

" How dear | to my heart | are the scenes | of my child | hood, 
When fond | recollec | tiQns present | them to view." 
" Tyrant | and slave | those names | of hate | and fear." 



FIGURES OF SPEECH. 

59. A Figure of Speech is a mode of speaking in 
which a word or sentence is to be understood in a 
sense different from its most common signification. 

60. The principal figures of speech are, 

Personification, Synecdoche, 

Simile, Antithesis, 

Metaphor, Climax, 

Allegory, Exclamation, 

Hyperbole, Interrogation, 

Irony, Paralepsis, 

Metonymy, Apostrophe. 

61. Personification is a figure by which we as- 
cribe to irrational animals and objects, the actions and 
qualities of rational beings ; as, " The ground thirsts 
for rain." 

62. A Simile is a direct and formal comparison ; — 



FIGURES OF SPEECH. 93 

as, " My voice remains like a blast that roars lonely on 
a sea-surrounded rock." 

63. A Metaphor is an indirect comparison ; — as, 

" Life is a torrid day, parched by the wind and sun. 
And death the calm cool night, 
When the weary day is done." 

64. An Allegory is a continuation of metaphors ; 
— as, 80th Psalm, " Thou hast brought a vine out of 
Egypt/' &c. 

65. An Hyperbole is a figure of speech which re- 
presents things as greater or less, better or worse, than 
they really are ; — as, " They are swifter than eagles ; 
they are stronger than lions." 

66. Irony is that figure of speech which repre- 
sents the contrary of what we say ; — as, " Cry aloud, 
for he is a God/' &c. 

67. Metonymy is a figure of speech by which the 
cause is put for the effect, or the effect, for the cause ; 
— as, " I have been reading Cicero/' — the orations of 
Cicero. 

68. Synecdoche is a putting the part for the whole, or 
the whole for a part, a definite number for an indefinite ; 
— as; " This roof (house) shall be his protection." 

69. An Antithesis is an expression denoting oppo- 
sition or contrast ;— as, 

" Tho 5 deep, yet clear ; tho' gentle, yet not dull." 

70. Climax is a figure in which the ideas rise or 
sink in regular gradation ; — as, " Giving all diligence, 
add to your faith, virtue ; and to virtue, knowledge ; 
and to knowledge, temperance ; and to temperance, 
patience ; and to patience, godliness ; and to godliness, 
brotherly kindness ; and to brotherly kindness, charity.' 



94 GRAxMMATIC GUIDE. 

71. Exclamation is a figure used to express some 
strong emotion of the mind ; — as, 

" Gh wretched state ! O bosom, black as death." 

72. Interrogation is a figure by which a question 
is asked for the purpose of strengthening an assertion ; 
— as, " Is this the part of wise men, engaged in a great 
and arduous struggle for liberty ?" " Are we disposed 
to be of the number of those who, having eyes, see not, 
and, having ears, hear not, the things which so nearly 
concern their temporal salvation ?" 

73. Paralepsis is a figure by which the speaker 
pretends to conceal what he is really declaring and 
strongly enforcing ; — as, " His gaming, not to speak of 
his intemperate habits, reduced him to poverty." 

74. Apostrophe is a figure by which the speaker or 
writer turns from the persons addressed, to some other 
person or thing ; — as, " Death is swallowed up in vic- 
tory. O Death ! where is thy sting ? O Grave ! where 
is thy victory f" 



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NO. 2 SALINA-STREET, SYRACUSE. 



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